Description
Book SynopsisChristian Theology: An Introduction, one of the most internationally-acclaimed Christian theology textbooks in use, has been completely rewritten for the 6th edition. It now features new and extended material and companion resources, ensuring it retains its reputation as the ideal introduction for students.
Table of ContentsList of Illustrations xxi
Preface xxiii
To the Student: How to Use This Book xxvii
To the Teacher: How to Use This Book xxix
The Structure of the Book: The Fifth and Sixth Editions Compared xxxiii
Video and Audio Resources xxxv
Part I Landmarks: Periods, Themes, and Personalities of Christian Theology 1
Introduction 3
1 The Patristic Period, c.100–c.700 5
The Early Centers of Theological Activity 5
An Overview of the Patristic Period 7
A clarification of terms 8
The theological agenda of the period 8
Key Theologians 10
Justin Martyr (c.100–c.165) 10
Irenaeus of Lyons (c.130–c.202) 10
Tertullian (c.160–c.220) 10
Origen (c.185–c.254) 10
Cyprian of Carthage (died 258) 11
Athanasius (c.293–373) 11
The Cappadocian fathers 11
Augustine of Hippo (354–430) 11
Key Theological Debates and Developments 12
The extent of the New Testament canon 12
The role of tradition: the Gnostic controversies 13
The fixing of the ecumenical creeds 14
The two natures of Jesus Christ: the Arian controversy 15
The doctrine of the Trinity 17
The doctrine of the church: the Donatist controversy 18
The doctrine of grace: the Pelagian controversy 18
Key Names, Words, and Phrases 19
Questions for Chapter 1 19
2 The Middle Ages and the Renaissance, c.700–c.1500 21
On Defining the “Middle Ages” 22
Theological Landmarks in Western Europe 24
The rise of medieval schools of theology 24
The founding of the universities 25
A theological textbook: the Four Books of the Sentences 26
“Cathedrals of the Mind”: scholasticism 26
The Italian Renaissance and the rise of humanism 26
Byzantine Theology: Major Themes 27
Key Theologians 29
John of Damascus (c.676–749) 29
Simeon the New Theologian (949–1022) 30
Anselm of Canterbury (c.1033–1109) 30
Thomas Aquinas (c.1225–74) 31
Duns Scotus (c.1266–1308) 32
William of Ockham (c.1285–1347) 32
Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466–1536) 33
Key Theological Debates and Developments 34
The consolidation of the patristic heritage 34
The exploration of the role of reason in theology 34
Scholasticism: the development of theological systems 35
The development of sacramental theology 35
The development of the theology of grace 35
The role of Mary in the scheme of salvation 36
The Renaissance: returning to the original sources of theology 36
Key Names, Words, and Phrases 37
Questions for Chapter 2 37
3 The Age of Reformation, c.1500–c.1750 38
The Main Movements of the Age of Reformation 38
The German Reformation: Lutheranism 39
The Swiss Reformation: the Reformed church 40
The radical Reformation: Anabaptism 41
The English Reformation: Anglicanism 42
The Catholic Reformation 42
The Second Reformation: confessionalization 43
Post-Reformation Movements 43
The consolidation of Catholicism 44
Puritanism 44
Pietism 45
The Copernican and Galilean Controversies 46
Key Theologians 47
Martin Luther (1483–1546) 47
Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) 48
John Calvin (1509–64) 48
Teresa of Avilà (1515–82) 48
Theodore Beza (1519–1605) 49
Robert Bellarmine (1542–1621) 49
Johann Gerhard (1582–1637) 49
Jonathan Edwards (1703–58) 49
Key Theological Debates and Developments 49
The sources of theology 50
The doctrine of grace 50
The doctrine of the sacraments 51
The doctrine of the church 51
Developments in Theological Literature 51
Catechisms 52
Confessions of faith 52
Works of systematic theology 53
Key Names, Words, and Phrases 55
Questions for Chapter 3 56
4 The Modern Period, c.1750 to the Present 57
Theology and Cultural Developments in the West 57
The wars of religion and disinterest in religion 58
The rise of the Enlightenment 58
The Enlightenment critique of Christian theology: some case studies 59
Marxism: an intellectual rival to Christianity 61
Darwinism: a new theory of human origins 62
The First World War: a theology of crisis 62
Postmodernism: beyond the modern theological agenda 63
Globalization: world Christianity and world religions 65
Key Theologians 67
F. D. E. Schleiermacher (1768–1834) 67
John Henry Newman (1801–90) 67
Karl Barth (1886–1968) 68
Paul Tillich (1886–1965) 68
Karl Rahner (1904–84) 68
Hans Urs von Balthasar (1905–88) 69
Jürgen Moltmann (born 1926) 69
Wolfhart Pannenberg (1928–2014) 69
Major Modern Theological Movements 70
Liberal Protestantism 70
Modernism 71
Neo-orthodoxy 72
Liberation theologies 74
Feminism 75
Black and “womanist” theology 77
Postliberalism 78
Radical orthodoxy 79
Key Names, Words, and Phrases 80
Questions for Chapter 4 80
Part II Sources and Methods 81
5 Getting Started: Preliminaries 83
What is Faith? 83
Defining Theology 85
A working definition of theology 85
The historical development of the idea of theology 86
The development of theology as an academic discipline 87
The Architecture of Theology 89
Biblical studies 89
Systematic theology 89
Philosophical theology 90
Historical theology 91
Practical, or pastoral, theology 92
Spirituality, or mystical theology 93
Apologetics 94
The Question of Prolegomena 94
Commitment and Neutrality in Theology 95
Orthodoxy and Heresy 97
Historical aspects 97
Theological aspects 98
The Theology of the Relationship Between Christianity and Secular Culture 99
Justin Martyr (c.100–c.165) 99
Tertullian (c.160–c.220) 100
Augustine of Hippo (354–430) 100
The twentieth century: H. Richard Niebuhr (1894–1962) 102
Questions for Chapter 5 103
6 The Sources of Theology 104
Scripture 104
The Old Testament 105
The New Testament 105
Other works: deutero-canonical and apocryphal writings 107
The relationship between the Old and New Testaments 109
The canon of Scripture: historical and theological issues 111
The Word of God 112
Narrative theology 113
Methods of interpretation of Scripture 115
Theories of the inspiration of Scripture 120
Tradition 122
A single-source theory of tradition 125
A dual-source theory of tradition 125
The total rejection of tradition 126
Theology and worship: the importance of liturgical tradition 126
Reason 127
Reason and revelation: three models 127
Enlightenment rationalism 129
Criticisms of Enlightenment rationalism 130
Religious Experience 130
Experience as the basis of Christian theology 131
Theology connects with human experience 132
Theology as the interpreter of human experience 132
God as a misinterpretation of human experience 133
Questions for Chapter 6 134
7 Knowledge of God: Natural and Revealed 135
The Idea of Revelation 136
Models of Revelation 137
Revelation as doctrine 137
Revelation as presence 138
Revelation as experience 139
Revelation as history 140
Natural Theology: Its Scope and Limits 141
Thomas Aquinas (c.1225–74) on natural theology 142
John Calvin (1509–64) on natural theology 143
The Renaissance: God’s two books 144
Eastern Orthodoxy on natural theology 145
The Barth–Brunner debate (1934) 146
Approaches to Discerning God in Nature 147
Human reason 147
The ordering of the world 147
The beauty of the world 148
The Natural Sciences and Christian Theology: Models of Interaction 148
Warfare: the “conflict” thesis 149
Isolation: the “non-overlapping” thesis 150
Enrichment: the complementarity thesis 150
Questions for Chapter 7 151
8 Philosophy and Theology: Dialogue and Debate 152
Philosophy and Theology: The Notion of the “Handmaid” 153
Can God’s Existence Be Proved? Four Approaches 155
The ontological argument of Anselm of Canterbury (c.1033–1109) 156
The “Five Ways” of Thomas Aquinas (c.1225–74) 158
The kalam argument 160
A classic argument from design: William Paley (1743–1805) 161
The Nature of Theological Language 163
Does theological language refer to anything? 164
Apophatic and kataphatic approaches 164
Questions for Chapter 8 171
Part III Christian Theology 173
9 The Doctrine of God 175
Is God Male? 175
A Personal God 177
Defining “person” 178
Dialogical personalism: Martin Buber (1878–1965) 179
Can God Suffer? 181
The classical view: the impassibility of God 182
The twentieth century: a paradigm shift? 183
A suffering God: Jürgen Moltmann (born 1926) 184
The death of God? 185
The Omnipotence of God 187
Defining omnipotence 187
The two powers of God 188
The notion of divine self-limitation 189
God’s Action in the World 190
“Special” and “general” divine action 190
Deism: God acts through the laws of nature 191
Thomism: God acts through secondary causes 192
Process theology: God acts through persuasion 193
God as Creator 194
Development of the doctrine of creation 194
Creation and the rejection of dualism 196
The doctrine of creation of Augustine of Hippo (354–430) 197
The doctrine of creation ex nihilo 198
Implications of the doctrine of creation 199
Models of God as creator 200
Creation and Christian approaches to ecology 201
Theodicies: The Problem of Evil 202
Irenaeus of Lyons (c.130–c.202) 203
Augustine of Hippo (354–430) 203
Karl Barth (1886–1968) 204
Alvin Plantinga (born 1932) 205
Other recent contributions 205
Questions for Chapter 9 206
10 The Person of Jesus Christ 207
The Place of Jesus Christ in Christian Theology 208
Jesus Christ is the historical point of departure for Christianity 208
Jesus Christ reveals God 208
Jesus Christ is the bearer of salvation 209
Jesus Christ defines the shape of the redeemed life 209
New Testament Christological Titles 209
Messiah 209
Son of God 210
Son of Man 211
Lord 211
Savior 212
God 213
The Patristic Debate Over the Person of Christ 214
Early explorations: Ebionitism and Docetism 214
Justin Martyr (c.100–c.165): the Logos Christology 216
Arius (c.260–336): Jesus Christ as “supreme among the creatures” 217
Athanasius (c.293–373): Jesus Christ as God incarnate 218
The Alexandrian school: Apollinarianism and its critics 220
The Antiochene school: Theodore of Mopsuestia (c.350–428) 221
The “communication of attributes” 223
The Council of Chalcedon (451) 224
Medieval Christology: The Relationship Between the Incarnation and the Fall 224
The Relationship Between the Person and Work of Christ 225
Christological Models: Classical and Contemporary 227
The substantial presence of God in Christ 227
Christ as mediator between God and humanity 229
The revelational presence of God in Christ 230
Christ as a symbolic presence of God 231
Christ as the bearer of the Holy Spirit 232
Christ as the example of a godly life 233
Christ as a hero 234
Kenotic approaches to Christology 235
The Quest for the Historical Jesus 236
The original quest for the historical Jesus 237
The quest for the religious personality of Jesus 237
The critique of the quest, 1890–1910 238
The quest suspended: Rudolf Bultmann (1884–1976) 239
The new quest for the historical Jesus 240
The third quest for the historical Jesus 241
The Resurrection of Christ: History and Interpretation 242
The Enlightenment: resurrection as nonevent 242
David Friedrich Strauss (1808–74): resurrection as myth 242
Rudolf Bultmann (1884–1976): resurrection as an event in the experience of the disciples 243
Karl Barth (1886–1968): resurrection as an historical event beyond critical inquiry 243
Wolfhart Pannenberg (1928–2014): resurrection as an historical event open to critical inquiry 244
Questions for Chapter 10 245
11 The Nature and Basis of Salvation 246
Christian Approaches to Salvation 248
Salvation is linked with Jesus Christ 248
Salvation is shaped by Jesus Christ 249
The eschatological dimension of salvation 250
The Foundations of Salvation: The Cross of Christ 251
The cross as a sacrifice 251
The cross as a victory 255
The cross and forgiveness 259
The cross as a demonstration of God’s love 264
Violence and the cross: the theory of René Girard (1923–2015) 268
“Can a Male Savior Save Women?” Feminists on Atonement 269
Models of Salvation in Christ: Classical and Contemporary 270
Some Pauline images of salvation 270
Deification: being made divine 271
Righteousness in the sight of God 272
Personal holiness 273
Authentic human existence 273
Political liberation 274
Spiritual freedom 274
The Appropriation of Salvation in Christ 275
The church as the means of salvation 275
Christ as a representative 276
Participation in Christ 276
Christ as a substitute 277
The Scope of Salvation in Christ 277
Universalism: all will be saved 277
Only believers will be saved 278
Particular redemption: only the elect will be saved 278
Questions for Chapter 11 279
12 The Holy Spirit 280
The Biblical Witness 280
The Patristic Period 281
Early patristic reflections: Irenaeus of Lyons (c.130–c.202) 282
Athanasius (c.293–373): the debate over the divinity of the Holy Spirit 282
The Council of Constantinople (381) 284
Augustine of Hippo (354–430): the spirit as a bond of unity 285
Symbols of the Spirit: a dove, fire, and oil 285
The Filioque Controversy 287
The Holy Spirit: Recent Discussions 290
The Great Awakening: Jonathan Edwards (1703–58) 290
The Second Vatican Council on the Holy Spirit 291
Liberation theology: the Spirit and empowerment 292
Feminism: the Spirit and relationality 293
The Functions of the Spirit 294
God’s active presence in the world 295
The illumination of revelation 295
The appropriation of salvation 296
The renewal of the Christian life 297
Questions for Chapter 12 298
13 The Trinity 299
Approaching the Christian Doctrine of the Trinity 299
The apparent illogicality of the doctrine 299
The Trinity as a statement about Jesus Christ 301
The Trinity as a statement about the Christian God 301
Islamic critiques of the doctrine of the Trinity 301
The Biblical Foundations of the Doctrine of the Trinity 302
The Historical Development of the Doctrine 303
The emergence of the trinitarian vocabulary 304
The emergence of trinitarian concepts 304
Rationalist critiques of trinitarianism: the eclipse of the Trinity, 1700–1900 306
The problem of visualization: analogies of the Trinity 307
“Economic” and “essential” approaches to the Trinity 308
Two Trinitarian Heresies 308
Modalism: chronological and functional 308
Tritheism 310
The Trinity: Six Classic and Contemporary Approaches 311
The Cappadocian fathers 311
Augustine of Hippo (354–430) 312
Karl Barth (1886–1968) 313
Karl Rahner (1904–84) 315
John Macquarrie (1919–2007) 316
Robert Jenson (born 1930) 317
Some Discussions of the Trinity in Recent Theology 318
F. D. E. Schleiermacher (1768–1834) on the dogmatic location of the Trinity 318
Jürgen Moltmann (born 1926) on the social Trinity 319
Eberhard Jüngel (born 1934) on the Trinity and metaphysics 320
Catherine Mowry LaCugna (1952–97) on the Trinity and salvation 321
Sarah Coakley (born 1951) on feminism and the Trinity 321
The Trinitarian Renaissance: Some Examples 323
A trinitarian theology of mission 323
A trinitarian theology of worship 324
A trinitarian theology of atonement 324
A trinitarian ecclesiology 325
Questions for Chapter 13 326
14 Human Nature, Sin, and Grace 327
The Place of Humanity Within Creation: Early Reflections 327
The image of God 327
The concept of sin 329
Augustine of Hippo (354–430) and the Pelagian Controversy 330
The “freedom of the will” 330
The nature of sin 331
The nature of grace 332
The basis of salvation 333
The Medieval Synthesis of the Doctrine of Grace 334
The Augustinian legacy 334
The medieval distinction between actual and habitual grace 335
The late medieval critique of habitual grace 336
The medieval debate over the nature and grounds of merit 336
The Reformation Debates over the Doctrine of Grace 337
From “salvation by grace” to “justification by faith” 337
The theological breakthrough of Martin Luther (1483–1546) 338
Luther on justifying faith 339
The concept of forensic justification 339
John Calvin (1509–64) on justification 341
The Council of Trent on justification 341
The Doctrine of Predestination 344
Augustine of Hippo (354–430) 344
Catholic debates: Thomism, Molinism, and Jansenism 345
Protestant debates: Calvinism and Arminianism 346
Karl Barth (1886–1968) 348
Predestination and economics: the Weber thesis 349
The Darwinian Controversy and the Nature of Humanity 350
Young-earth creationism 351
Old-earth creationism 351
Intelligent design 351
Evolutionary theism 352
Questions for Chapter 14 353
15 The Church 354
Biblical Models of the Church 354
The Old Testament 354
The New Testament 355
The Early Development of Ecclesiology 356
The Donatist Controversy 358
Early Protestant Doctrines of the Church 360
Martin Luther (1483–1546) 360
John Calvin (1509–64) 361
The radical Reformation 363
Christ and the Church: Some Twentieth-Century Themes 364
Christ is present sacramentally 364
Christ is present through the word 366
Christ is present through the Spirit 367
The Second Vatican Council on the Church 367
The church as communion 368
The church as the people of God 369
The church as a charismatic community 369
The “Notes” of the Church 370
One 370
Holy 373
Catholic 374
Apostolic 377
Priesthood and Ministry: Some Major Themes 378
Questions for Chapter 15 380
16 The Sacraments 381
The Early Development of Sacramental Theology 382
The Definition of a Sacrament 383
The Donatist Controversy: Sacramental Efficacy 386
The Multiple Functions of the Sacraments 388
Sacraments convey grace 388
Sacraments strengthen faith 389
Sacraments enhance unity and commitment within the church 390
Sacraments reassure us of God’s promises toward us 391
A case study in complexity: the functions of the Eucharist 392
The Eucharist: The Question of the Real Presence 395
The ninth-century debates over the real presence 395
Medieval views on the relationship between “sign” and “sacrament” 396
Transubstantiation 397
Transignification and transfinalization 399
Consubstantiation 400
A real absence: memorialism 400
The Debate Concerning Infant Baptism 401
Infant baptism remits the guilt of original sin 402
Infant baptism is grounded in God’s covenant with the church 403
Infant baptism is unjustified 403
Questions for Chapter 16 404
17 Christianity and the World Religions 405
Western Pluralism and the Question of Other Religions 406
The detached approach 407
The committed approach 407
Approaches to Religions 407
The Enlightenment: religions as a corruption of the original religion of nature 408
Ludwig Feuerbach (1804–72): religion as an objectification of human feeling 409
Karl Marx: religion as the product of socioeconomic alienation 410
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939): religion as wish fulfillment 411
Emile Durkheim (1858–1917): religion and ritual 412
Mircea Eliade (1907–86): religion and the sacred 413
J. R. R. Tolkien (1892–1973) and C. S. Lewis (1898–1963): religion as myth 413
Karl Barth (1886–1968) and Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1906–45): religion as a human invention 414
Trinitarian theologies of religion 416
Christian Approaches to Other Religions 416
Exclusivism 417
Inclusivism 419
Pluralism 422
Questions for Chapter 17 425
18 Last Things: The Christian Hope 426
Developments in the Doctrine of the Last Things 427
The New Testament 427
Early Christianity and Roman beliefs about reunion after death 428
Augustine of Hippo (354–430): the two cities 429
Joachim of Fiore (c.1132–1202): the three ages 430
Dante Alighieri (1265–1321): the Divine Comedy 430
The Enlightenment: eschatology as superstition 432
The twentieth century: the rediscovery of eschatology 432
Rudolf Bultmann (1884–1976): the demythologization of eschatology 433
Jürgen Moltmann (born 1926): the theology of hope 434
Helmut Thielicke (1908–86): ethics and eschatology 435
Dispensationalism: the structures of eschatology 436
Spe salvi: Benedict XVI (born 1927) on the Christian hope 437
N. T. Wright (born 1948) on (not) going to heaven 438
The Last Things 439
Hell 439
Purgatory 441
The millennium 442
Heaven 443
Questions for Chapter 18 446
Jargon-Busting: A Glossary of Theological Terms 449
Sources of Citations 456
Acknowledgments 465
Index 466
