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The Freedom Shield brings together stories of veterans of the 191st Assault Helicopter Company, tasked with carrying troops into battle, attacking enemy positions and evacuating the wounded in their UH-1 Iroquois "Huey" helicopters. The unit was assembled from a hodgepodge selection of hand-me-down aircraft, used equipment and overlooked personnel—its appearance belied the invaluable work the crews of the 191st would undertake during the Vietnam War. This narrative of the Company, told through collected stories of veterans, defines a breed of soldier newly minted in Vietnam: the combat assault-helicopter crewman.The 191st pilots, crews, and support personnel vividly share the details of what it was like to be at war, forced to rely on your fellow crewmembers for your own survival. Their accounts of helicopter combat at the height of the Vietnam conflict accurately recreate the sights and sounds of the battlefields, the fear and horror of watching close friends torn to pieces, their feelings on returning to base. Their message is infinitely clear: 'The price of freedom is painful.'Endorsements“The story of the 191st Assault Helicopter Company’s combat actions in Vietnam is one of heroism and dedication to duty. It is a vivid picture of young American soldiers full of P and V and the ‘want to’ needed to get the job done with bullets flying in all directions. An adrenaline rush is the order of the day. Read this book to gain new respect and admiration for the Vietnam-era veterans who fought in this unpopular war—they were truly magnificent!”—Brigadier General John C. “Doc” Bahnsen, Author of American Warrior: A Combat Memoir of Vietnam“An amazing story of perseverance and will. The author accurately chronicles how the 191st Assault Helicopter Company was assembled, during the haste of the Vietnam buildup, with secondhand equipment and filler personnel to become a crown jewel among aviation units in battle. A true testament of American mettle that we all still admire and envy.”—COL Alan B. Renshaw“This is a refreshing new perspective of the men inside the Hueys, who played such an important role in the conduct of the Vietnam War. How frequently the victorious accounts of combat units in Vietnam failed to credit the pilots and crews who risked everything so ground forces could do their job. Countless narratives mention these warriors only as inanimate objects. . . . This book speaks of the flesh and blood of those who flew those missions.”—COL Paul Patton Winkel Jr.“A riveting firsthand account of a combat assault-helicopter company in Vietnam. The book provides an invaluable number of Vietnam lessons learned, which flared up again in the more recent desert wars. A must read for aviators and commanders of combat units.”—COL FrancisW. Matthews“The author brings you up close and personal to the human side of helicopter warfare and the heart-wrenching fears and pains felt by the pilots and crews. A well-written account of how the tactical employment of airmobile assets can provide battlefield solutions as well as failures. Honest rendition of some intelligence and communications failures that resulted in extensive collateral damage on assaulting forces. Provides an extraordinary insight for ground commanders preparing for airmobile combat.”—COL John J. McGinn“Climb into the cockpit with 191st Assault Helicopter Company Huey pilots and experience combat assaults firsthand. Feel what it was like . . . flying into the Vietnamese jungle, never sure what might be waiting. Imagine yourself being one of the several sitting-duck ground targets receiving incoming small-arms fire while waiting for troops to load or unload. Nobody leaves the LZ till the last ship is ready. Listen to the clatter of the M60 door guns and the music of the lumbering Charlie-model gunships close overhead, pouring welcomed suppressive fire into the hostile tree lines, allowing the slicks to escape once more . . . usually.”—COL Dennis L. Butler

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A high-energy, laugh-out-loud, fully illustrated adventure story by much-loved actor Stephen Mangan and talented artist Anita Mangan. "Laugh-out-loud stuff" Ray D’Arcy It's the most important day of the year for King Fabian as he is hosting all the neighbouring rulers. Everything simply must go perfectly. King Fabian wakes up, stretches, and... farts. His wife's fury is so huge that he panics and blames the butler, who is carted off to the dungeons. Leaving behind a big problem: Fabian isn't really the brains behind the crown: it is the butler... how will dithery Fabian manage to pull off this high-pressure event alone? His small and smelly fart looks like it will kick off a crisis... Frank - a kitchen boy with a big imagination - is drafted in as an emergency butler. As the banquet descends into a food fight and processions catapult out of control, Frank finds himself in an all-out farty farce. Can he save the day? Wildly funny and endlessly surprising, this is delightfully imaginative, surreal storytelling with a message that small events can trigger big change, and children can be heroes! Packed with pictures by Stephen Mangan's sister Anita Mangan. Escape the Rooms is one of the most loved and bestselling children's debuts of 2021. Stephen and Anita Mangan are comic dynamite. Praise for Stephen and Anita's books: Escape the Rooms: "A brilliant, clever, kind of genius book" Graham Norton, Virgin Radio 'Richly imagined and deeply heartfelt' Hadley Freeman, Guardian 'Manages to feel both classic and modern at the same time' Good Housekeeping 'A beautiful and exciting adventure that ignites the imagination' Edith Bowman The Fart That Changed the World "A sure-fire way for kids to entertain themselves. What’s more, it’s also excellent for reading aloud" LoveReading4Kids "A high-energy, brilliantly imaginative and laugh-out-loud tale that is guaranteed to blow away young readers" Lancashire Evening Post The Unlikely Rise of Harry Sponge “After the runaway success of joint debut novel, Escape the Rooms, and the hilarious The Fart That Changed the World, the dynamic duo return with an all-action, marvellously manic and laugh-out-loud tale with a message that any child can be a hero” Lancashire Evening Post "hilarious ... A right royal romp" First News ABOUT THE MANGANS Stephen Mangan is an author, script-writer and actor with huge range across TV, radio, film and theatre. From classic comedy such as Green Wing, Episodes and I'm Alan Partridge and acclaimed drama such as The Split, Stephen also presents Portrait and Landscape Artist of the Year and regularly appears on stage, most recently as a highly praised Ebeneezer Scrooge in A Christmas Carol. Stephen also voiced the title role in Postman Pat: The Movie. He has been a member of the judging panels for the Costa Book of the Year prize and The Laugh-Out-Loud Awards (The Lollies). His children's books are the bestselling Escape the Rooms and The Fart that Changed the World. Stephen on writing for children (interview on ITV's Lorraine): “Every page has to grip them, make them laugh, be interesting because they can drop it. There are screens everywhere that they can pick up. That’s part of the reason why I started writing books because I had such fun as a kid reading books. I always had my head in a book. I wanted to write books that were unputdownable for children, that were full of adventure and crazy big characters and made them laugh.” Anita Mangan is a celebrated graphic designer and illustrator who has designed over 60 books including for Leon Restaurants, Gizzi Erskine and Fearne Cotton. She illustrated the best-selling Be a Unicorn series. Her first children's book was the bestselling Escape the Rooms.

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‘Hawker is a terrific creation’ Bernard CornwellAre they saving a prince, or unchaining a monster?December 1476. The infamous Vlad the Impaler – Dracula – is reported killed in a Turkish ambush: the brutal scourge of the Ottomans is no more…November 1485. Nine years later, mysterious Hungarian noblewoman Maria Hunyadi lays a quest at the feet of Sir John Hawker, loyal retainer to the fallen King Richard III and protector of Richard’s illegitimate son, Sir Giles Ellingham. The mission: to liberate her father from imprisonment in a remote Wallachian mountain fortress. The prisoner: Vlad Dracula.Indebted to Maria for saving his men’s lives in Venice, Hawker reluctantly accepts her story and agrees to come to her aid. But any rescue will be fraught with danger. There are powerful forces at work who would not want the great warlord found alive.But is Maria really who she says she is? Is she looking for more than just her father? And is the Impaler truly alive, after all this time – a lost prince?From the fringes of the Hungarian empire to the dark mountain forests of Saxon Transylvania, Hawker must contend with enemies on all sides, and those unseen within the company itself. The exciting sequel to Hawker and the King’s Jewel – described by Bernard Cornwell as ‘brilliant’ – perfect for fans of Christian Cameron and David Gilman.Praise for Hawker and the King’s Jewel ‘A brutal, brilliant tale, told with verve and pace. Hawker is a terrific creation’ Bernard Cornwell‘Bale takes the reader from the terror of battle where a crown is lost and won to the sparkling jewel that is Venice, teeming with intrigue and treachery. Great storytelling’ David Gilman, author of the Master of War series'An absolute gem of a novel. I was taken aback by Bale's skill and talent. Meticulously researched, with a totally authentic medieval feel, the novel fizzes with action, romance and intrigue. A gripping yarn' Angus Donald, author of the Outlaw series‘Hawker is an ageing, flawed character and it is in his description of the man's inner turmoil, his bursts of energy and, above all, loyalty that the author has created a living soul… Compelling, authentic characters, a tight narrative which drives the story with verve; dialogue which is neither mock Gothic nor anachronistic, all allow the reader to feel part of the sounds and sights of the late fifteenth century. The novel deserves high praise’ The RicardianWhat readers are saying about Hawker and the King's Jewel ‘I bought this to read on holiday on the back of a friend's recommendation. I don't normally read historical fiction like this but was blown away by the experience - it was a great story, told at a good clip with wonderful characters, action and lovely historical touches that made you really “feel” and appreciate the period but without weighing down the whole. I more than surprised myself by sneaking in the odd hour of reading here and there in ways that I never normally do. It was an absolute treat’‘The characterisation and period detail are superb and with plenty of action. The pace is just right, making it a really good and engaging read’‘A rollercoaster ride full of twists and turns’‘I can honestly say the book grabs the reader’s attention and draws them in from the opening pages. It opens your mind to all sorts of possibilities to where the narrative is heading, then suddenly switches track, leaving you grasping for answers. It certainly had me riveted and enthralled’‘You will be drawn into the political intrigues of15th century Europe. Very informative and not too heavy. I would thoroughly recommend it.’‘Beautifully researched; an exciting & gripping tale of what might have been’‘Breathless and rollicking… This reader could hardly bear to put it down’

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A high-energy, laugh-out-loud, fully illustrated adventure story by much-loved actor Stephen Mangan and talented artist Anita Mangan. Grumpy old King Chisel has a problem. He needs an heir to his kingdom - fast! So he challenges the best kids from across the country to compete in the Crown Duels, with the ultimate winner becoming king or queen. Step forward: GLORIA SQUAT-FURTHER: champion athlete HUXLEY BEELINE: mathematical genius JONNY MOULD: artistic ace GOSSAMER FOUNTAIN: empathy expert HARRY SPONGE: ordinary boy. Not to be underestimated... The ridiculous prime minister, Farting Bernie, is in charge and the contest swiftly descend into chaos. Who will rise to the top and survive wild sabotaging, saggy royal pants, the most disgusting meal ever invented, and a pair of frisky goats? The wildly funny, brilliantly silly adventure from the bestselling author and illustrator of Escape the Rooms and The Fart That Changed the World. Wildly funny, delightfully imaginative storytelling with a message that any kid can be a hero! Packed with pictures by Stephen Mangan's sister Anita Mangan. Escape the Rooms and The Fart That Changed the World have been huge bestsellers: Stephen and Anita are comic dynamite. Praise for Stephen and Anita's books: Escape the Rooms: "A brilliant, clever, kind of genius book" Graham Norton, Virgin Radio 'Richly imagined and deeply heartfelt' Hadley Freeman, Guardian 'Manages to feel both classic and modern at the same time' Good Housekeeping 'A beautiful and exciting adventure that ignites the imagination' Edith Bowman The Fart That Changed the World "A sure-fire way for kids to entertain themselves. What’s more, it’s also excellent for reading aloud" LoveReading4Kids "Laugh-out-loud stuff" Ray D’Arcy "A high-energy, brilliantly imaginative and laugh-out-loud tale that is guaranteed to blow away young readers" Lancashire Evening Post The Unlikely Rise of Harry Sponge “After the runaway success of joint debut novel, Escape the Rooms, and the hilarious The Fart That Changed the World, the dynamic duo return with an all-action, marvellously manic and laugh-out-loud tale with a message that any child can be a hero” Lancashire Evening Post "hilarious ... A right royal romp" First News ABOUT THE MANGANS Stephen Mangan is an author, script-writer and actor with huge range across TV, radio, film and theatre. From classic comedy such as Green Wing, Episodes and I'm Alan Partridge and acclaimed drama such as The Split, Stephen also presents Portrait and Landscape Artist of the Year and regularly appears on stage, most recently as a highly praised Ebeneezer Scrooge in A Christmas Carol. Stephen also voiced the title role in Postman Pat: The Movie. He has been a member of the judging panels for the Costa Book of the Year prize and The Laugh-Out-Loud Awards (The Lollies). His children's books are the bestselling Escape the Rooms and The Fart that Changed the World. Stephen on writing for children (interview on ITV's Lorraine): “Every page has to grip them, make them laugh, be interesting because they can drop it. There are screens everywhere that they can pick up. That’s part of the reason why I started writing books because I had such fun as a kid reading books. I always had my head in a book. I wanted to write books that were unputdownable for children, that were full of adventure and crazy big characters and made them laugh.” Anita Mangan is a celebrated graphic designer and illustrator who has designed over 60 books including for Leon Restaurants, Gizzi Erskine and Fearne Cotton. She illustrated the best-selling Be a Unicorn series. Her first children's book was the bestselling Escape the Rooms.

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Get in the Christmas spirit with this charming and funny festive rom-com perfect for fans of Elena Armas, Sophie Kinsella and Catherine Walsh! It's going to be a holly jolly Christmas... Toy Store owner Elodie Martin is not one to get into the festive spirit but nothing gets her fired up more than the chance to get one over on her nemesis, Callum Ashley – the frosty, infuriatingly handsome owner of the local department store. Christmas is the only time she can compete thanks to her grandad Jim, everyone's favourite Santa Claus. But when he has to unexpectedly hang up his red suit, Elodie is at risk of losing the business for good and has no choice but to rely on last-minute replacement out-of-work actor Nick Winter. Can a sprinkling of Christmas magic warm Callum's heart and help Elodie find her happily-ever-after? Or is it just possible that love is to be found a little bit closer to home? Readers love Santa Maybe!: 'Oh my heart!!! Mary Jayne Baker has straightened her crown and taken her seat back on the throne, fully deserving of a QUEEN title... I have literally been transported by this book... impossible to put down... It's a must read!!' littlemissbooklover87, 5* Review 'Santa Maybe is a great big love triangle with tinsel and flashing tree lights decked all over it... Impossibly, breathtakingly romantic... Invitingly sigh-worthy... reality wrapped in a shimmery sheen of hopes and hearts fulfilled.' SparklyPrettyBriiiight, 5* Review 'A five-star read that is worthy of any Santa list... So sweet and funny and had me so wrapped up that I sobbed buckets!!... I am well into the Christmas spirit now.' NetGalley 5* Review 'Aw, what a wonderful festive romance and with such a perfect ending!... This is such a brilliant story and the perfect festive romance to read this Christmas!... The ending is good and so perfect... I can't believe how much I have enjoyed reading this and how I couldn't stop turning the pages! Just want to re-read it again already!' thestrawberrypost 'A gorgeous story that takes all the ingredients of a perfect romantic comedy, and adds that extra sprinkle of Christmas magic to the mix... There is so much here to laugh out loud about, but Baker also knows how to reduce you to a weeping mess – and I loved every extra sparkly magical festive moment.' @brownflopsy, 5* Review 'I loved this so much... Think Miracle on 34th Street vibes, I could see this as a movie, it really was so good!!!!' @reemareads, 5* Review 'It had a You've Got Mail vibe to it and I loved that... Super festive and uplifting... If you're looking for a super festive and speedy read then I'd definitely recommend Santa Maybe.' @youngcreativepress 'Loved this christmassy read. Lovely story very enjoyable will be rereading come December.' @SarahOates10, 5* Review 'Fun festive rom com in book form, that made me smile... Enjoyable quick read, savour with a mug of hot chocolate and marshmallows.' @librarianwithattitude1 'This is a sweet and lovely story; it will make you laugh and believe in love... Because, let's be honest, love is a little bit magic, it happens the moment you least expect it and it transforms your life... You'll have to read the book to know all the answers! And believe me when I say that this is a book that will make you smile!' Varietats2010 'Wonderful Christmas book... filled with so much love, warmth and Christmas spirit. Wonderful.' NetGalley 5* Review 'I have never read a Mary Jayne Baker book I didn't love. This one was no exception... A fun book which I enjoyed reading, whatever the season.' Goodreads 5* Review 'Another smash. This book is funny and clever, with a resolution to a potential love triangle that was done in a careful and believable manner... Add this to your Christmas reads.' Sikonat, 5* Review 'An absolute joy to read – it was gorgeously festive and I was so invested in the characters, even the ones I didn't want to like.' christmaslover1985, 5* Review

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Excavations at Dryslwyn between 1980 and 1995 uncovered a masonry castle, founded in the late 1220s by Rhys Gryg for his son Maredudd ap Rhys, the first Lord of Dryslwyn. The first castle was a simple round tower and polygonal walled enclosure, within which were constructed a kitchen, prison and wood-framed, clay-floored great chamber beside a great hall. In the mid 13th century a second ward was added and the great chamber rebuilt in stone. This castle was greatly expanded in the period 1283-87 by Rhys ap Maredudd, the second and final Lord of Dryslwyn, who built an Outer Ward and gatehouse. He also rebuilt much of the Inner Ward, adding an extra storey to the great hall and great chamber, apartments and a chapel. At the end of the 13th century a large three-ward castle stretched along the eastern and southern edge of the hill while the rest of the hilltop was occupied by a settlement defended by a wall and substantial ditch with access through a gatehouse. This castle and its associated settlement were besieged and captured in 1287 by an English royal army of over 11,000 men following damage inflicted by a trebuchet and mining of the walls. Throughout the 14th century the English Crown garrisoned and repaired the castle, supervised by an appointed constable, before it was surrendered to Owain Glyn Dwr in 1403. During the early to mid 15th century the castle was deliberately walled up to deny its use to a potential enemy and it was subsequently looted and demolished. By the late 13th century, the castle had a white rendered and lime-washed appearance, creating a very dramatic and highly visible symbol of lordship. Internally, the lord's and guest apartments had decorative wall paintings and glazed windows. Evidence from charred beams still in situ, the sizes, shapes and distribution of nails, sheet lead, slates and postholes recovered during excavation has enabled some of the wooden as well as masonry buildings to be reconstructed. Waterlogged deposits had preserAt just 132 hectares (325 acres) the parish of Caldecote is one of the smallest parishes in Hertfordshire. Today the settlement comprises the manor house, until recently surrounded by a range of traditional farm buildings, together with six labourer's cottages and the church. To the north lies the site of the old rectory and the earthworks of a medieval settlement. In 1973 the Department of Environment and the Deserted Medieval Village Research Group arranged a rescue excavation to examine the earthworks of the medieval village before they were levelled and ploughed. Five crofts, the old rectory site and much of the moated enclosure were investigated in one of the largest excavations ever conducted on a later medieval rural site in Britain. Though the excavations did recover a Bronze Age beaker burial and small quantities of Roman and Iron Age pottery, the medieval settlement at Caldecote was probably founded in the 10th century, and by the time of the Domesday Survey there was a church, a priest and nine villeins. A moated site was added in the 13th century. A century later, Caldecote was granted to the abbots of the Benedictine monastery in St Albans, at a time when there were seventeen householders. Early in the second half of the 14th century, the estate and demesne were subdivided into six farms, each complete with a hall-house and two or more barns. Following the dissolution of the monastery in 1539, the manor was again held by an absentee lord and the farms continued to prosper. However, the late 16th and early 17th centuries, for which there are several surviving wills and inventories, saw their gradual abandonment.After the desertion of Caldecote Marish in 1698, Caldecote was farmed as a single unit until 1970, when the estate was attached to that adjoining the manor of Newnham. Of particular importance from Caldecote is the archaeological evidence for medieval peasant structures, the development of the later medieval domestic plan and the structural tra

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A stunning feminist reimagining of the life of Joan of Arc - perfect for fans of Cecily, Ariadne and Matrix'It is as if the author has crept inside a statue and breathed a soul into it, re-creating Joan of Arc as a woman for our time' Hilary Mantel, twice Booker Prize-winning author of The Mirror & the Light'A glorious, sweeping novel . . . Richly imagined, poignant and inspiring' Jennifer Saint, author of Ariadne'Chen earns the comparison [to Mantel] thanks to her vivid, visceral and boldly immediate storytelling . . . a hypnotic heroine for our time' Telegraph'Chen's Joan roars off the page. If you liked Ariadne, then this has to be your next read' Red Magazine'Brilliant . . . Chen [presents] Joan as a beguiling, fully human mix of wariness and confidence, and fiercely protective of those she loves' Guardian'Chen's brilliantly imagined novel breathes new life into this famous tale. Her Joan is a riotous tomboy, a hot-headed adolescent and a decidedly unsaintly soldier - and is all the more inspiring for it. A triumph of historical fiction' Mail on Sunday*Times Best Historical Novels of July 2022 Pick**The Week Best Novels of 2022 Pick****Girl. Warrior. Heretic. Saint?France is mired in a losing war against England. Its people are starving. Its king is in hiding. Yet out of the chaos, an unlikely heroine emerges.Reckless, steel-willed and brilliant, Joan has survived a childhood steeped in both joy and violence to claim an extraordinary - and fragile - position at the head of the French army. The battlefield and the royal court are full of dangers and Joan finds herself under suspicion from all sides - as well as under threat from her own ambition.With unforgettably vivid characters and propulsive storytelling, Joan is a thrilling epic, a triumph of historical fiction, and a feminist celebration of one remarkable - and remarkably real - woman who left an indelible mark on history.PRAISE FOR JOAN'Measured, austere, profoundly physical. I loved it' Jo Baker, author of Longbourn'Pacy but lyrical, which takes great skill . . . Joan possesses a mystical, spiritual quality that gleams within the dirt and brutality of war, while her kindness and compassion shine through. I loved the writing, the imagery, the feeling of authenticity: this novel will stay with me for a long time' Elizabeth Chadwick, bestselling author'This masterly and intense portrait creates a convincing three-dimensional character from the young peasant woman gifted with visions who, in her short life, followed her destiny to fight for the disputed French crown, even at the cost of her life. A highly immersive read' Anne O'Brien, bestselling author of The Royal Game'In Katherine J. Chen's capable hands, Joan becomes fully flesh and achingly real' Lisa Wingate, #1 New York Times bestselling author of The Book of Lost Friends 'An epic novel with the mythic power of a fairytale' Christina Baker Kline, #1 New York Times bestselling author of Orphan Train and The Exiles'When you look up the term 'historical fiction' in the dictionary it should say, simply, Read Katherine J. Chen' Steve Berry, New York Times bestselling author of The Kaiser's Web 'A wholly original novel that inspires one's mind and awakens one's soul. With Joan, Katherine J. Chen has created nothing short of a masterpiece' Alyson Richman, USA Today and internationally bestselling author of The Lost Wife 'Beautifully written and confidently told, this is a story of how feminine strength and will can change the world' Megan Chance, bestselling author of A Splendid Ruin'This Joan is of the earth - scrappy and strong, resilient and curious. An ambitious, thrilling novel' Fiona Davis, New York Times bestselling author of The Magnolia Palace 'Katherine J. Chen has stunningly summoned another time and place' M.J. Rose, New York Times bestselling author of The Last Tiara 'Visceral and piercing - I was blown away' Allison Pataki, New York Times bestselling author of The Magnificent Lives of Marjorie Post 'Every era has a need to recast the French maiden warrior in a manner that renews her relevance. In Chen's transporting prose, you will meet a towering new Joan of Arc, one of amazing physical strength, kindness, loyalty, and endurance' Sena Jeter Naslund, author of Ahab's Wife, Four Spirits, and Abundance

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The facts of Alexander's life are extraordinary, and it's no surprise that two major Hollywood films on his life are in production. Born Alexander III, king of Macedonia, and the first king to be called "the Great," he was born in 356 BC and brought up as crown prince. Taught for a time by Aristotle, he acquired a love for Homer and an infatuation with the heroic age. When his father Philip divorced Olympias to marry a younger princess, Alexander fled. Although allowed to return, he remained isolated and insecure untilP hilip's mysterious assassination about June 336. Alexander was at once presented to the army as king. Winning its support, he eliminated all potential rivals. No sooner had Alexander ascended the throne, than the Illyeians and other Northern tribes, which had been subdued by his father Philip, erupted into Macedonia, but they were quickly dispatched by the armies of Alexander. Some Grecian states, with Athens and Thebes at their head, thinking this a favorable oppurtunity, attempted to shake off the macedonia yoke; but the sudden appearance of the youthful Alexander in their midst soon put an end to all resistance. Thebes was taken by strom and razed to the ground, only the house of the poet Pindar and several other dwellings being spared; and the inhabitants were sold into slavery. Athens and the other Greek states immeaditly submitted, and were generously pardoned by Alexander. Then he took up Philip's war of aggression against Persia, adopting his slogan of a Hellenic Crusadeagainst the barbarian. He defeated the small force defending Anatolia, proclaimed freedom for the Greek cities there while keeping them under tight control, and, after a campaign through the Anatolian highlands (to impress the tribesmen), met and defeated the Persian army under Darius III at Issus (near modern Iskenderun, Turkey). He occupied Syria and--after a long siege ofTyreE--Phoenicia, then entered Egypt, where he was accepted as Pharaoh. From there he visited the famous Libyan oracle of Amon (or Ammon,identified by the Greeks with Zeus). The oracle hailed him as Amon's son (two Greek oracles confirmed him as son of Zeus) and promised him that he would become a god. His faith in Amon kept increasing, and after his death he was portrayed with the god's horns. After organizing Egypt and founding Alexandria, Alexander crossed the Eastern Desert and the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, and in the autumn of331 defeated Darius's grand army at Gaugamela (near modern Irbil, Iraq). Darius fled to the mountain residence of Ecbatana, while Alexander occupied Babylon, the imperial capital Susa, and Persepolis. Alexander acted as legitimate king of Persia, and to win the support ofthe Iranian aristocracy he appointed mainly Iranians as provincial governors. Yet a major uprising in Greece delayed him at Persepolis until May 330 and then, before leaving, he destroyed the great palace complex as a gesture to the Greeks. At Ecbatana, after hearing that the rebellion had failed, he proclaimed the end of the Hellenic Crusade and discharged the Greek forces. He then pursued Darius, who had turned eastward. Darius was assassinated by Bessus, the satrap of Bactria, who distrusted his will to keep fighting and proclaimed himself king. As a result, Alexander faced years of guerrilla war in northeastern Iran and central Asia, which ended only when he married (327) Rozana, the daughter of a localchieftain. The whole area was fortified by a network of military settlements, some of which later developed into major cities. During these years, Alexander's increasing preoccupation outside of Greece led to trouble with Macedonian nobles and some Greeks. Parmenion, Philip II's senior general, and his family originally had a stranglehold on the army, but Alexander gradually weakened its grip. Late in 330, Parmenion's oldestson, Philotas, commander of the cavalry and chief opponent of the king's new policies, was eliminated in a carefully staged coup d'etat, and Parmenion was assassinated. Another noble, Cleitus, was killed by Alexander himself in a drunken brawl. (Heavy drinking was acherished tradition at the Macedonian court.) Alexander next demanded that Europeans follow the Oriental etiquette of prostrating themselves before the king--which he knew was regarded as an act of worship by Greeks. But resistance by Macedonian officers and by the Greek Callisthenes (a nephew of Aristotle who had joined the expedition as the official historian of the crusade) defeated the attempt. Callisthenes was then executed on a charge of conspiracy. With discipline restored, Alexander invaded (327) the Punjab. After conquering most of it, he was stopped from pressing on to the distant Ganges by a mutiny of the soldiers. Turning south, he marched down to the mouth of the Indus, engaging in some of the heaviest fighting and bloodiest massacres of the war. He was nearly killed while assaulting a town. On reaching the Indian Ocean, he sent the Greek oooooofficer Nearchus with a fleet to explore the coastal route to Mesopotamia. Part of the army returned by a tolerable land route, while Alexander, with the rest,marched back through the desert of southern Iran, chiefly to emulate various mythical figures said to have done this. He emerged safely in the winter of 325-24, after the worst sufferings and losses of the entire campaign, to find his personal control over the heart of the empire weakened by years of absence and rumors of his death. On his return, he executed several of his governors and senior officers and replaced others. In the spring of 324, Alexander held a great victory celebration at Susa. He, and 80 close associates, married Iranian noblewomen. In addition, he legitimized previous so-called marriages between soldiers and native women and gave them rich wedding gifts, no doubt to encourage such unions. When he discharged the disabled Macedonian veterans, after defeating a mutiny by the estranged and exasperated Macedonian army, they had to leave their wives and children with him. Because national prejudices had prevented the unification of his empire, his aim was apparently to prepare a long-term solution (he was only 32)by breeding a new body of high nobles of mixed blood and also creating the core of a royal army attached only to himself. In the autumn of 324, at Ecbatana, Alexander lost his boyhoodfriend Hephaestion, by then his grand vizier--probably the only person he had ever genuinely loved. The loss was irreparable. After a period of deep mourning, he embarked on a winter campaign in the mountains, then returned to Babylon, where he prepared an expedition for the conquest of Arabia. Weakened from numerous battles, he died in June 323 without designating a successor. His death opened the anarchic age of the Diadochi. Alexander at once became a legend. Greek accounts blended almost incredible fact with pure fiction (for example, his meeting withthe Queen of the Amazons). What remains as fact are Alexander's indisputable military genius and his successful opportunism and timing in both war and politics. The success of his ambition, at immense cost in terms of human life, spread Greek culture far into central Asia, and some of it--supported and extended by the Hellenistic dynasties--lasted for centuries. It also led to an expansion of Greek horizons and to the acceptance of the idea of a universal kingdom, which paved the way for the Roman Empire. Moreover, it opened up the Greek world to new Oriental influences, which would lay the groundwork for Christianity.

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