This volume presents a wide range of new approaches aimed at improving the safety and quality of food products and agricultural commodities.
12.4 Effect of high pressure on the physical and biochemical characteristics of food systems 251
18.6 Commercal high hydrostatic pressure-treated food products around the world 381
21.1 Introduction: the management of food safety requires a holistic approach 429
26.5 Medicinal plants and the regulations governing the use of botanical biocides 564
Preface xix
Contributors xxi
Part I Active and Atmospheric Packaging 1
1 Selected Techniques to Decontaminate Minimally Processed Vegetables 3
Vicente M. Gómez-López
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 UV-C light 4
1.2.1 Definition 4
1.2.2 Inactivation mechanism 4
1.2.3 Effect on microbial populations 4
1.2.4 Effect on sensory attributes 5
1.2.5 Effects on the nutritional and phytochemical composition of MPV 5
1.3 Pulsed light 6
1.3.1 Definition 6
1.3.2 Inactivation mechanism 6
1.3.3 Effect on microbial populations 7
1.3.4 Effect on sensory attributes 8
1.3.5 Effects on the nutritional and phytochemical composition of MPV 8
1.4 Electrolysed oxidizing water 8
1.4.1 Definition 8
1.4.2 Inactivation mechanism 9
1.4.3 Effect on microbial populations 9
1.4.4 Effect on sensory quality 11
1.4.5 Effects on the nutritional and phytochemical composition of MPV 11
1.5 Ozone 11
1.5.1 Definition 11
1.5.2 Inactivation mechanism 12
1.5.3 Ozonated water 12
1.5.4 Gaseous ozone 14
1.5.5 Effects on the nutritional and phytochemical composition of MPV 15
1.6 Low-temperature blanching 15
1.6.1 Definition 15
1.6.2 Effect on microbial populations 15
1.6.3 Effects on sensory quality 16
1.6.4 Effects on the nutritional and phytochemical composition of MPV 16
References 16
2 Active and Intelligent Packaging of Food 23
Istvan Siró
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Active scavengers 25
2.2.1 Oxygen scavengers 25
2.2.2 Ethylene scavengers 26
2.2.3 Carbon dioxide scavengers 27
2.2.4 Moisture regulators 28
2.2.5 Aroma scavengers/absorbers 28
2.3 Active releasers/emitters 29
2.3.1 Antimicrobial packaging 29
2.3.2 Antimicrobial substances 29
2.3.3 Development of antimicrobial packaging 33
2.3.4 Antioxidative packaging 34
2.3.5 Other releasers/emitters 35
2.3.6 Controlled release of active compounds 35
2.4 Intelligent packaging 37
2.4.1 Gas indicators and sensors 37
2.4.2 Time-temperature indicators 38
2.4.3 Freshness/spoilage indicators 38
2.4.4 Biosensors/Nanosensors 39
2.4.5 Radio frequency identification 39
2.5 Nanotechnology in active and intelligent packaging 39
2.6 Future trends 41
2.7 Further sources of information 42
References 42
3 Modified-Atmosphere Storage of Foods 49
Osman Erkmen
3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 Modified atmosphere 50
3.2.1 Types of modified-atmosphere techniques 50
3.2.2 Gases used for modification of atmosphere 54
3.3 Effects of modified gas atmospheres on microorganisms and foods 55
3.3.1 Mechanism of effects 55
3.3.2 Effects of modified atmosphere on spoilage microorganisms 57
3.3.3 Effects of modified atmosphere on microorganisms that cause food poisoning 57
3.4 Application of modified atmospheres for food preservation 60
3.4.1 Meat and meat products 60
3.4.2 Seafoods 61
3.4.3 Dairy products 61
3.4.4 Bakery products 61
3.4.5 Dried food products 62
3.4.6 Fruits and vegetables 62
3.5 Food safety and future outlook 63
3.6 Conclusions 63
References 64
4 Effects of Combined Treatments with Modified-Atmosphere Packaging on Shelf-Life Improvement of Food Products 67
Shengmin Lu and Qile Xia
4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Physical treatments 68
4.2.1 Low temperature 68
4.2.2 High pressure 70
4.2.3 Radiation 72
4.2.4 Heat treatment 73
4.2.5 Films 74
4.3 Chemical treatments 75
4.3.1 Chemical sanitizers and preservatives 75
4.4 Quality-improving agents 82
4.5 Antibrowning agents 83
4.6 Natural products 84
4.7 Other methods, such as oxygen scavengers and coatings 89
4.8 Biocontrol 90
4.8.1 Bacterial antagonists 90
4.8.2 Yeast antagonists 92
References 96
5 Coating Technology for Food Preservation 111
Chamorn Chawengkijwanich and Phikunthong Kopermsub
5.1 Introduction 111
5.2 Progress in relevant materials and their applications in coating 112
5.2.1 Active agents for coating 112
5.2.2 Controlled release of active agents 114
5.2.3 Multifunctional surface-coating materials 117
5.2.4 Nutraceutical coatings 118
5.3 Progress in coating methodology 118
5.4 Future trends in coating technology 121
5.5 Conclusions 122
References 123
Part II Novel Decontamination Techniques 129
6 Biological Materials and Food-Drying Innovations 131
Habib Kocabıyık
6.1 Introduction 131
6.2 Microwave drying 133
6.3 Radio frequency drying 134
6.4 Infrared drying 136
6.5 Refractance window TM drying 138
References 139
7 Atmospheric Freeze Drying 143
Shek Mohammod Atiqure Rahman and Arun S. Mujumdar
7.1 Introduction 143
7.2 Basic principles 144
7.3 Types of atmospheric freeze dryer and application 146
7.3.1 Fluid-bed freeze drying 146
7.3.2 Tunnel freeze drying 146
7.3.3 Atmospheric spray-freeze drying 147
7.3.4 Heat-pump technology 148
7.4 A novel approach to AFD 149
7.4.1 Experimental results 150
7.5 Model 156
7.5.1 Assumptions 156
7.5.2 Governing equations 157
7.6 Conclusions 158
References 159
8 Osmotic Dehydration: Theory, Methodologies, and Applications in Fish, Seafood, and Meat Products 161
Ioannis S. Arvanitoyannis, Agapi Veikou, and Panagiota Panagiotaki
8.1 Introduction 161
8.1.1 Determination of physical characteristics 163
8.2 Methods of drying 165
8.2.1 Sun drying/solar drying 165
8.2.2 Air and contact drying under atmospheric pressure 165
8.2.3 Freeze drying 165
8.2.4 Osmotic dehydration 166
8.2.5 Vacuum osmotic dehydration 166
8.2.6 Vacuum impregnation 166
8.2.7 Pulse VOD 167
8.2.8 Traditional meat smoking 167
8.2.9 Meat treatments by soaking 167
8.3 Some results 168
8.4 Conclusions 186
References 188
9 Dehydration of Fruit and Vegetables in Tropical Regions 191
Salim-ur-Rehman and Javaid Aziz Awan
9.1 Introduction 191
9.2 Forms of water 192
9.2.1 Role of water in food 192
9.3 Advantages of dried foods 192
9.4 Drying processes 193
9.4.1 Sun drying/solar drying of fruit and vegetables 193
9.4.2 Solar driers 194
9.4.3 Drying under shade 195
9.4.4 Osmotic drying 195
9.5 Dehydration 196
9.5.1 Drying conditions 196
9.5.2 Factors affecting evaporation of water from food surfaces 196
9.5.3 Types of dehydrator 197
9.6 Evaporation and concentration 200
9.6.1 Freeze drying 201
9.6.2 Dehydro-freezing 201
9.6.3 Intermediate-moisture food technology 202
9.7 Spoilage of dried fruits and vegetables 203
9.8 Merits of dehydration over sun drying 203
9.9 Effects of dehydration on nutritive value of fruits and vegetables 204
9.10 Effects of drying on microorganisms 204
9.11 Effect of drying on enzyme activity 205
9.12 Influence of drying on pigments 205
9.13 Reconstitution test 205
9.14 Drying parameters 208
References 208
10 Developments in the Thermal Processing of Food 211
Tareq M. Osaili
10.1 Introduction 211
10.2 Thermal processing 212
10.2.1 Thermal inactivation kinetics 212
10.2.2 Process lethality of thermal process 213
10.2.3 Requirement of thermal process 214
10.2.4 Process verification/validation 214
10.3 Innovative thermal processing techniques 215
10.3.1 Indirect electroheating techniques: radio frequency and microwave 215
10.3.2 Direct electroheating techniques: ohmic heating 224
References 227
11 Ozone in Food Preservation 231
Bülent Zorlugenç and Feyza Kıroğllu Zorlugenç
11.1 Introduction 231
11.2 History 232
11.3 Chemistry 232
11.3.1 Solubility 233
11.3.2 Stability 233
11.3.3 Reactivity 233
11.4 Generation 233
11.5 Antimicrobial effect 234
11.5.1 Inactivation spectrum 235
11.5.2 Influencing factors 236
11.6 Applications 236
11.6.1 Red meat 236
11.6.2 Poultry 237
11.6.3 Seafood 237
11.6.4 Fruit and vegetables 238
11.6.5 Cereals 239
11.6.6 Pesticides 239
11.6.7 Mycotoxins 240
11.6.8 Food-processing equipment 240
11.7 Toxicity and safety of personnel 241
11.8 Conclusion 241
References 242
12 Application of High Hydrostatic Pressure Technology for Processing and Preservation of Foods 247
Hudaa Neetoo and Haiqiang Chen
12.1 Introduction 247
12.2 The working principles of high hydrostatic pressure 248
12.3 Microbial inactivation by high hydrostatic pressure 249
12.3.1 Effect of high pressure on bacterial cell membrane 249
12.3.2 Effect of high pressure on bacterial cell morphology 249
12.3.3 Effect of high pressure on biochemical and enzymatic processes in microorganisms 251
12.4 Effect of high pressure on the physical and biochemical characteristics of food systems 251
12.5 Applications of high hydrostatic pressure to specific food commodities 253
12.5.1 Effect of high hydrostatic pressure on muscle foods 254
12.5.2 Effect of high hydrostatic pressure processing on fishery products 257
12.5.3 Effect of high hydrostatic pressure processing on milk and dairy products 259
12.5.4 Effect of high hydrostatic pressure on eggs and egg products 262
12.5.5 Effect of high hydrostatic pressure on fruit and vegetable products 264
12.6 Conclusions 268
References 268
13 Pulsed Electric Fields for Food Preservation: An Update on Technological Progress 277
Abdorreza Mohammadi Nafchi, Rajeev Bhat, and Abd Karim Alias
13.1 Introduction 277
13.2 Historical background of pulsed electric fields 278
13.3 Pulsed electric field processing 278
13.4 Mechanisms and factors affecting pulsed electric fields 279
13.4.1 Increase in transmembrane potential 279
13.4.2 Pore-initiation stage 279
13.4.3 Evolution of the pore population 280
13.4.4 Pore resealing or cell death 280
13.5 Pulsed electric field applications in food processing 280
13.6 Nanosecond pulsed electric fields 281
13.7 Impacts of pulsed electric fields on antioxidant features 282
13.7.1 Antioxidants and vitamin c 282
13.7.2 Carotenoids and vitamin A 285
13.8 Effects of pulsed electric fields on solid textures 286
13.9 Starch modification by pulsed electric fields 286
13.10 Conclusions 289
References 289
14 Salting Technology in Fish Processing 297
Hűllya Turan and Ibrahim Erkoyuncu
14.1 Introduction 297
14.1.1 Purpose and principles of salting 297
14.2 Process steps in salting technology 298
14.2.1 Salt quality 298
14.2.2 Fish preparation 299
14.2.3 Salting methods 299
14.2.4 Additives used in the salting process 304
14.3 Factors affecting the penetration of salt 304
14.3.1 Salting method 304
14.3.2 Salt concentration 304
14.3.3 Salt quality 304
14.3.4 Fish freshness 305
14.3.5 Amount of fat 306
14.3.6 Size of the fish 306
14.3.7 Temperature 306
14.4 Ripening of salted fish 307
14.4.1 Storage of salted fish 308
14.4.2 Undesirable changes in salted products 309
14.5 Conclusion 312
References 312
15 Hypoxanthine Levels, Chemical Studies and Bacterial Flora of Alternate Frozen/Thawed Market-Simulated Marine Fish Species 315
Olusegun A. Oyelese
15.1 Introduction 315
15.2 Sources of contamination of fish 316
15.3 Fish as a perishable food 316
15.3.1 Autolytic spoilage 317
15.3.2 Microbiological spoilage 317
15.4 Indicators of deterioration in frozen fish 318
15.5 Bacterial food poisoning in seafood 318
15.6 Methods used for assessing deteriorative changes in fish 319
15.6.1 Organoleptic or sensory assessment 320
15.6.2 Chemical assessment 320
15.6.3 Bacteriological assessment (microbiological analysis) 322
15.7 Study of three marine fish species 323
15.7.1 Proximate composition of marine fish samples 323
15.7.2 Results of bacteriological assessment 324
15.8 Conclusions 328
References 328
16 Preservation of Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz): A Major Crop to Nourish People Worldwide 331
G.J. Benoit Gnonlonfin, Ambaliou Sanni and Leon Brimer
16.1 Introduction: cassava production and importance 331
16.2 Nutritional value 331
16.3 Cassava utilization 332
16.4 Factors that limit cassava utilization, and its toxicity 333
16.5 Cassava processing 336
16.5.1 Description of some cassava-based products 336
16.6 Storage of processed cassava products 339
References 339
17 Use of Electron Beams in Food Preservation 343
Rajeev Bhat, Abd Karim Alias and Gopinadhan Paliyath
17.1 Introduction 343
17.2 Food irradiation, source and technology 344
17.3 The food industry and electron-beam irradiation 346
17.3.1 Fruits and vegetables 346
17.3.2 Cereals, legumes and seeds 360
17.3.3 Poultry, meat and seafood 362
17.4 Electron-beam irradiation and microorganisms 364
17.5 Conclusion and future outlook 365
References 366
Part III Modelling 373
18 Treatment of Foods using High Hydrostatic Pressure 375
Sencer Buzrul and Hami Alpas
18.1 Introduction 375
18.2 Pressure and the earth 376
18.3 Main factors characterizing high hydrostatic pressure 376
18.3.1 Energy 376
18.3.2 Densification effect 377
18.3.3 Isostatic (Pascal) principle 377
18.4 Historical perspective 377
18.5 High hydrostatic pressure process and equipment 378
18.6 Commercal high hydrostatic pressure-treated food products around the world 381
18.6.1 Meat products 381
18.6.2 Seafood and fish products 382
18.6.3 Vegetable products 382
18.6.4 Juices and beverages 382
18.7 Consumer acceptance of high hydrostatic pressure processing 382
References 385
19 Role of Predictive Microbiology in Food Preservation 389
Francisco Noé Arroyo-López, Joaquín Bautista-Gallego and Antonio Garrido-Fernández
19.1 Microorganisms in foods 389
19.1.1 Why is it necessary to control microbial growth in foods? 389
19.1.2 Main factors affecting microbial growth and survival in food ecosystems 390
19.2 Predictive microbiology 391
19.2.1 Origin and concept 391
19.2.2 The modelling process 392
19.3 Software packages and web applications in predictive microbiology 400
19.4 Applications of predictive microbiology in food preservation 402
References 402
20 Factors Affecting the Growth of Microorganisms in Food 405
Siddig Hussein Hamad
20.1 Introduction 405
20.2 Intrinsic factors 406
20.2.1 Water activity 406
20.2.2 pH value 409
20.2.3 Nutrient content 412
20.2.4 Antimicrobial substances and mechanical barriers to microbial invasion 413
20.2.5 Redox potential 416
20.3 Extrinsic factors 417
20.3.1 Impact of storage temperature 417
20.3.2 Impact of storage atmosphere of the food 421
20.4 Implicit factors 423
20.4.1 Antagonism 423
20.4.2 Synergism 424
20.5 Processing factors 424
20.6 Interaction between factors 425
References 426
21 A Whole-Chain Approach to Food Safety Management and Quality Assurance of Fresh Produce 429
Hans Rediers, Inge Hanssen, Matthew S. Krause, Ado Van Assche, Raf De Vis, Rita Moloney and Kris A. Willems
21.1 Introduction: the management of food safety requires a holistic approach 429
21.2 Microbial quality management starts in production 431
21.3 Processing of fresh produce is a key step in quality preservation 433
21.3.1 Hand hygiene 433
21.3.2 The use of at-line microbial monitoring in food processing 434
21.4 Monitoring the entire food supply chain 437
21.4.1 Temperature management in the cold chain 437
21.4.2 Construction of a microbiological database as a tool for process control 441
21.5 The improvement of compliance by increasing awareness 442
21.6 Last but not least: consumers 443
21.7 Conclusion 444
References 445
Part IV Use of Natural Preservatives 451
22 Food Bioprotection: Lactic Acid Bacteria as Natural Preservatives 453
Graciela Vignolo, Lucila Saavedra, Fernando Sesma, and Raúl Raya
22.1 Introduction 453
22.2 Antimicrobial potential of LAB 455
22.3 Bacteriocins 456
22.3.1 Biosynthetic pathways 457
22.4 Food applications 458
22.4.1 Bioprotection of meat, poultry, and seafood products 459
22.4.2 Bioprotection of dairy products 463
22.4.3 Bioprotection of vegetable products 464
22.5 Hurdle technology to enhance food safety 468
22.6 Bacteriocins in packaging films 471
22.7 Conclusions 473
References 474
23 Bacteriocins: Recent Advances and Opportunities 485
Taoufik Ghrairi, Nawel Chaftar and Khaled Hani
23.1 Introduction 485
23.2 Bacteriocins produced by LAB 486
23.2.1 Detection 486
23.2.2 Classification 486
23.2.3 Mechanisms of action 491
23.2.4 Genetic organization and regulation 492
23.2.5 Immunity 493
23.3 Bioprotection against pathogenic bacteria 493
23.3.1 Biocontrol of Listeria monocytogenes 493
23.3.2 Biocontrol of Clostridium botulinum and Clostridium perfringens 497
23.3.3 Biocontrol of Staphylococcus aureus 498
23.3.4 Biocontrol of Gram-negative bacteria 498
23.4 Bioprotection against spoilage microorganisms 500
23.4.1 Biocontrol of Bacillus spp. 500
23.4.2 Biocontrol of yeasts and moulds 500
23.5 Medical and veterinary potential of LAB bacteriocins 501
23.6 Conclusion 501
References 502
24 Application of Botanicals as Natural Preservatives in Food 513
Vibha Gupta and Jagdish Nair
24.1 Introduction 513
24.2 Antibacterials 514
24.2.1 Spices and their essential oils 514
24.2.2 Allium species 515
24.2.3 Citrus fruits 516
24.2.4 Cruciferae family 516
24.3 Antifungals 517
24.4 Antioxidants 518
24.4.1 Cereals and legumes 519
24.4.2 Fruits 519
24.4.3 Herbs and spices 519
24.5 Applications 520
24.5.1 Meat products 521
24.5.2 Dairy products 521
24.5.3 Vegetables and fruits 522
24.5.4 Synergistic effects 522
24.6 Conclusion 523
References 524
25 Tropical Medicinal Plants in Food Processing and Preservation: Potentials and Challenges 531
Afolabi F. Eleyinmi
25.1 Introduction 531
25.2 Some tropical medicinal plants with potential food-processing value 532
25.2.1 Ageratum conyzoides 532
25.2.2 Cymbopogon citratus (lemongrass) 532
25.2.3 Chromolaena odorata (Siam weed) 533
25.2.4 Garcinia kola (bitter kola) 533
25.2.5 Vernonia amygdalina (bitter leaf) 534
25.2.6 Allium sativum L. (garlic) 534
25.2.7 Gongronema latifolium 534
25.2.8 Draceana mannii 534
25.2.9 Salvia officinalis 535
25.3 Conclusion 535
References 535
26 Essential Oils and Other Plant Extracts as Food Preservatives 539
Thierry Regnier, Sandra Combrinck and Wilma Du Plooy
26.1 Background 539
26.2 Secondary metabolites of plants 542
26.2.1 Essential oils 542
26.2.2 Non-volatile secondary metabolites 543
26.3 Modes of action of essential oils and plant extracts 544
26.4 Specific applications of plant extracts in the food industry 545
26.4.1 Fruits 546
26.4.2 Vegetables, legumes and grains 558
26.4.3 Seaweed 559
26.4.4 Fish and meat 563
26.5 Medicinal plants and the regulations governing the use of botanical biocides 564
26.6 Future perspectives 568
26.7 Conclusions 569
References 569
27 Plant-Based Products as Control Agents of Stored-Product Insect Pests in the Tropics 581
Joshua O. Ogendo, Arop L. Deng, Rhoda J. Birech and Philip K. Bett
27.1 Introduction 581
27.2 Common insect pests of stored food grains in the tropics 583
27.2.1 Primary insect pests of stored cereals 583
27.2.2 Primary insect pests of pulses 586
27.2.3 Secondary insect pests of stored cereals and pulses 588
27.3 Advances in stored-product insect pest control in the tropics 590
27.3.1 Cultural control 590
27.3.2 Monitoring of pest populations 590
27.3.3 Grain moisture content control 590
27.3.4 Biological control 591
27.3.5 Synthetic chemical control 591
27.4 Advances in development of botanical pesticides in the tropics 592
27.4.1 Botanical insecticides 592
27.4.2 Essential oils 593
27.4.3 Case studies on control of stored-grain insect pests using essential oils 595
27.5 Prospects of botanical pesticides 597
References 597
28 Preservation of Plant and Animal Foods: An Overview 603
Gabriel O. Adegoke and Abiodun A. Olapade
28.1 Introduction: definition and principles 603
28.2 Food preservation methods 603
28.2.1 Precooling 605
28.2.2 Canning 605
28.2.3 Drying and dehydration 606
28.2.4 Packaging methods 606
28.2.5 Antimicrobial-packaging technology 607
28.2.6 Smoking 607
28.2.7 Chemical preservatives/food additives 607
28.2.8 Shelf-life extension using additives of plant origin 608
28.2.9 Food irradiation 608
28.2.10 High-pressure food processing 608
28.2.11 Modified gas atmosphere 608
28.3 Conclusion 609
References 609
Index 613
