Description
Book SynopsisTable of ContentsPreface vii
A Guide to the Features xii
1 Introduction to Physical Geography 1
The Scope of Geography 2
Defining Physical Geography 3
The Earth’s Four Spheres 6
Organization of This Book 8
Exploring Cause-and-Effect Relationships Holistically 8
Emphasis on Human Interactions with the Environment 8
Geo Media Library: An Interactive Tool 9
Focus on Geographical Literacy 9
Physical Geography is Interesting, Exciting, and Very Relevant to Your Life 9
Geo Media: Stream Meandering 10
Check Your Understanding 10
2 The Geographer’s Tools 11
The Geographic Grid 12
Latitude 13
Longitude 15
Using the Geographic Grid 16
Geo Media: Using the Geographic Grid 17
Human Interactions: The United States Public Land Survey 17
Maps—The Basic Tool of Geographers 19
Map Projections 19
Map Scale 24
Isolines 26
Geo Media: Using Maps 26
Digital Technology in Geography 27
Remote Sensing 27
Global Positioning Systems 32
Geographic Information Systems 34
Geo Media: Using a Geographic Information System 34
Summary of Key Concepts 35
Check Your Understanding 35
3 Earth–Sun Geometry and the Seasons 36
Our Place in Space 37
The Shape of Earth 37
Earth’s Orbit Around the Sun 38
The Earth’s Rotation and Axial Tilt 39
The Seasons 42
Solstice and Equinox 43
Human Interactions: How We See Earth–Sun Geometry on Earth 45
Day and Night 45
Geo Media: Orbital View and Earth as Viewed from the Sun 46
Seasonal Changes in Sun Position (Angle) and Length of Day 46
Geo Media: Celestial Dome 48
Geo Media: Sun Angle and Length of Day 48
Geo Media: Earth–Sun Geometry and Ancient Humans 48
Summary of Key Concepts 48
Check Your Understanding 48
4 The Global Energy System 50
The Electromagnetic Spectrum and Solar Energy 51
The Electromagnetic Spectrum 51
Solar Energy and the Solar Constant 52
Geo Media: The Electromagnetic Spectrum 53
Composition of the Atmosphere 53
Constant Gases 53
Variable Gases 54
Particulates 59
The Flow of Solar Radiation on Earth 60
Heat Transfer 60
Flow of Solar Radiation in the Atmosphere 60
Interaction of Solar Radiation and the Earth’s Surface 63
Geo Media: The Angle of Incidence 64
The Global Radiation Budget 65
Geo Media: The Global Energy Budget 66
Human Interactions: Solar Energy Production 69
Summary of Key Concepts 72
Check Your Understanding 72
5 Global Temperature Patterns 73
Layered Structure of the Atmosphere 74
The Troposphere 74
The Stratosphere 75
The Mesosphere 76
The Thermosphere 76
Surface and Air Temperatures 77
Human Interactions: Calculating the Heat Index and Wind Chill 79
Large-Scale Geographic Factors That Influence Air Temperature 79
Local Factors That Influence Air Temperature 81
Geo Media: Surface Temperature 82
The Annual Range of Surface Temperature (A Holistic Assessment) 83
Geo Media: Maritime vs. Continental Effect 83
Geo Media: Global Temperature Patterns 85
Human Interactions: Urban Heat Islands 86
Geo Media: Temperature and Location 88
Summary of Key Concepts 88
Check Your Understanding 88
6 Atmospheric Pressure, Wind, and Global Circulation 90
Atmospheric Pressure 91
Factors That Influence Air Pressure 91
Measuring and Mapping Air Pressure 92
Atmospheric Pressure Systems 93
Low-Pressure Systems 93
High-Pressure Systems 94
The Direction of Airflow 95
Unequal Heating of Land Surfaces 95
Pressure Gradient Force 96
Geo Media: Fluctuations in the Pressure Gradient 97
Coriolis Force 97
Frictional Forces 98
Geo Media: The Coriolis Force 98
Global Pressure and Atmospheric Circulation 100
Tropical Circulation 102
Midlatitude Circulation 103
Geo Media: Global Atmospheric Circulation 106
Polar Circulation 106
Seasonal Migration of Pressure Systems 106
Geo Media: The Asian Monsoon 107
Human Interactions: Harnessing Wind Energy 108
Geo Media: Global Atmospheric Circulation and Water Vapor Movement 108
Local Wind Systems 111
Land–Sea Breezes 111
Topographic Winds 111
Oceanic Circulation 114
Gyres and Thermohaline Circulation 114
El Niño 115
Geo Media: El Niño 116
Summary of Key Concepts 118
Check Your Understanding 118
7 Atmospheric Moisture and Precipitation 119
Physical Properties of Water 120
Hydrogen Bonding 120
Thermal Properties of Water and Its Physical States 121
Geo Media: Latent Heat 122
The Hydrosphere and the Hydrologic Cycle 122
Humidity 124
Maximum, Specific, and Relative Humidity 124
Dew-Point Temperature 127
Geo Media: Atmospheric Humidity 129
Evaporation 129
Adiabatic Processes 130
The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate 131
Geo Media: Adiabatic Processes 132
The Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate 132
Cloud Formation and Classification 133
Cloud Classification 136
Fog 136
Precipitation 137
Types of Precipitation 137
Precipitation Processes 137
Geo Media: Orographic Processes 141
Geo Media: Convectional Precipitation 143
Human Interactions: Recent Droughts in the U.S. 144
Summary of Key Concepts 145
Check Your Understanding 146
8 Air Masses and Cyclonic Weather Systems 147
Air Masses and Fronts 148
Air Masses 148
Fronts 149
Evolution and Character of Midlatitude Cyclones 152
Upper Airflow and the 500-mb Pressure Surface 152
Interaction of Upper Airflow and Surface Airflow 153
Cyclogenesis 155
Geo Media: Formation of a Midlatitude Cyclone 157
Thunderstorms 157
Evolution of Thunderstorms 157
Geo Media: Migration of a Midlatitude Cyclone 157
Geo Media: Formation of Thunderstorms 159
Severe Thunderstorms 159
Tornadoes 161
Geo Media: Tornadoes 165
Tropical Cyclones 166
Hurricanes 166
Human Interactions: Coping with Destructive Hurricanes 168
Geo Media: Tracks of Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Sandy 169
Summary of Key Concepts 173
Check Your Understanding 173
9 Global Climates and Global Climate Change 174
Climate and the Factors That Affect It 175
Köppen Climate Classification 176
Geography of Köppen Climates 179
Tropical (A) Climates 180
Arid and Semi-Arid (B) Climates 180
Geo Media: Tropical Savanna Climate ( Aw) 181
Mesothermal (C) Climates 183
Microthermal (D) Climates 184
Geo Media: Humid Subtropical Hot-Summer Climate (Cfa, Cwa) 184
Geo Media: Marine West-Coast Climates (Cfb, Cfc) 185
Polar (E) Climates 186
Highland (H) Climates 187
Geo Media: Global Climates 187
Geo Media: Remote Sensing and Climate 187
Reconstructing Past Climates 188
Pollen Records 188
Tree Ring Patterns 190
Ice Core Analysis 190
Causes of Past Climate Change 193
Geo Media: Reconstructing Past Climates Using Oxygen Isotopes 194
Geo Media: The Milankovitch Theory 195
Human Interactions and Ongoing Climate Change 196
The Carbon Cycle 197
Is Anthropogenic Climate Change Really Occurring? 199
Predicting Future Climate Change 200
Geo Media: The Greenhouse Effect and Global Climate Change 201
Summary of Key Concepts 202
Check Your Understanding 203
10 Plant Geography 204
Ecosystems and Biogeography 205
The Process of Photosynthesis 206
Geo Media: Photosynthesis and Respiration 209
The Relationship of Climate and Vegetation: The Character and Distribution of Global Biomes 210
Forest Biomes 212
Grassland Biomes 215
Desert Biomes 217
Tundra Biome 218
Local and Regional Factors That Influence the Geographic Distribution of Vegetation 218
Slope and Aspect 218
Vertical Zonation 219
Plant Succession 220
Geo Media: Plant Succession 221
Riparian Zones 221
Human Interactions: Human Influence on Vegetation Patterns 222
Deforestation 222
Agriculture in the Midlatitude Grassland Biome 225
Geo Media: Deforestation 225
Overgrazing 226
Geo Media: Remote Sensing and the Biosphere 227
Summary of Key Concepts 227
Check Your Understanding 228
11 The Global Distribution and Character of Soils 229
What is Soil? 230
Basic Soil Properties 230
Soil-Forming (Pedogenic) Processes 232
Soil-Forming Factors 234
Measurable Soil Characteristics 238
Soil Chemistry 241
Soil pH 241
Colloids and Cation Exchange 241
Soil Profiles (Reading the Soil) 242
Geo Media: Soil Colloids and pH 242
Time and Soil Evolution 244
Soil Science and Classification 245
Geo Media: Soil Horizon Development 245
The Twelve Soil Orders 247
Geo Media: African Climate, Vegetation, and Soils 250
Geo Media: Regional Pedogenic Processes 256
Geo Media: North American Climate, Vegetation, and Soils 259
Human Interactions with Soils 260
Summary of Key Concepts 264
Check Your Understanding 264
12 Earth’s Internal Structure, Rock Cycle, and Geologic Time 265
Earth’s Inner Structure 266
The Major Layers 266
Rocks and Minerals in the Earth’s Crust 270
Igneous Rocks 271
Geo Media: Identification of Igneous Environments 272
Sedimentary Rocks 273
Geo Media: Clastic Rocks 277
The Rock Cycle 278
Geo Media: The Rock Cycle 280
Geologic Time 280
Geo Media: Geologic Time 282
“Telling” Geologic Time 282
Putting Geologic Time in Perspective 282
A Holistic View of Geologic Time and the Rock Cycle: The Grand Canyon and the Spanish Peaks of Colorado 283
Human Interactions with Geologic Time: The Anthropocene 286
Summary of Key Concepts 288
Check Your Understanding 288
13 Tectonic Processes and Landforms 289
Plate Tectonics 290
The Lithospheric Plates 290
Plate Movement 290
Geo Media: Continental Drift 293
Types of Plate Movements 294
Passive Margins 294
Transform Plate Margins 294
Plate Divergence 295
Plate Convergence 296
Geo Media: Folding 302
Geo Media: Plate Tectonics 302
Earthquakes 303
Seismic Processes 303
Human Interactions: Earthquakes as Natural Hazards 308
Geo Media: Types of Faults 313
Volcanoes 314
Explosive Volcanoes 314
Fluid Volcanoes 318
Hotspots 318
Geo Media: Walk the Pacific Ring of Fire 319
Geo Media: Volcanoes 322
Summary of Key Concepts 322
Check Your Understanding 322
14 Weathering and Mass Movement 324
Weathering 325
Mechanical Weathering 325
Chemical Weathering 328
Human Interactions: Acid Rain 330
Geo Media: Weathering 332
Mass Wasting 332
Rockfall 334
Soil Creep 334
Landslides 335
Flows 336
Avalanches 337
Geo Media: Weathering and Mass Movements 339
Summary of Key Concepts 339
Check Your Understanding 339
15 Groundwater and Karst Landscapes 340
Movement and Storage of Groundwater 341
Human Interactions with Groundwater 343
The High Plains Aquifer 343
Subsidence 347
Groundwater Contamination 348
Karst Landforms and Landscapes 349
Geo Media: Hydrologic Cycle and Groundwater 349
Caves and Caverns 350
Karst Topography 351
Summary of Key Concepts 353
Check Your Understanding 353
16 Fluvial Systems and Landforms 354
Overland Flow and Drainage Basins 355
Origin of Streams 355
Drainage Basins 356
Drainage Patterns, Density, and Stream Ordering 358
Geo Media: The Rhine River 360
Hydraulic Geometry and Channel Flow 361
Fluctuations in Stream Discharge 361
Fluvial Processes and Landforms 364
Erosion and Deposition 364
Stream Gradation 366
Geo Media: Bedload Transport and Braided Streams 367
Geo Media: The Graded Stream 369
Evolution of Stream Valleys and Floodplains 371
Geo Media: Stream Meandering 372
Geo Media: Fluvial Geomorphology and Stream Processes 373
Human Interactions with Streams 380
Urbanization 380
Artificial Levees 381
Dams and Reservoirs 382
Summary of Key Concepts 386
Check Your Understanding 386
17 Glacial Geomorphology: Processes and Landforms 387
Development of a Glacier 388
The Metamorphosis of Snow to Glacial Ice 388
The Glacial Mass Budget 389
Geo Media: The Glacial Mass Budget 390
Glacial Movement 390
Types of Glaciers 392
Glaciers in Mountainous Regions 392
Continental Glaciers 394
Geo Media: Glaciers in the Cascade Mountains 394
Glacial Landforms 396
Landforms Made by Glacial Erosion 396
Deposition of Glacial Drift and Resulting Landforms 399
History of Glaciation on Earth 403
Geo Media: Depositional Glacial Landforms 403
The Wisconsin Glaciation and Evolution of the Great Lakes 405
Probable Human Impact on Glaciers 406
Geo Media: Glaciers and Climate Change 408
Periglacial Processes and Landscapes 410
Permafrost 410
Ground Ice and Associated Landforms 411
Summary of Key Concepts 413
Check Your Understanding 413
18 Arid Landscapes and Eolian Processes 414
Arid Landscapes 415
Desert Geomorphology 416
Eolian Erosion and Transport 420
The Fluid Behavior of Wind, Erosion, and Sediment Transport 420
Eolian Deposition and Landforms 422
Airflow and the Formation of Sand Dunes 423
Classification of Sand Dunes and Related Landforms 425
Deposition of Windblown Dust 428
Geo Media: Eolian Processes and Landforms 429
Human Interactions with Arid Landscapes and Eolian Processes 431
Desertification in the African Sahel 431
Desertification in the Great Plains of the United States: The Dust Bowl 433
Summary of Key Concepts 435
Check Your Understanding 435
19 Coastal Processes and Landforms 437
Oceans and Seas on Earth 438
The Nature of Coastlines: Intersection of Earth’s Spheres 439
Processes That Shape the Coastline 439
Geo Media: Tides 445
Coastal Landforms 446
Erosional Coastlines 446
Geo Media: Waves and Coastal Erosion 450
Depositional Coastlines 450
Geo Media: Longshore Processes and Depositional Coastlines 456
Human Interactions with Coastlines 458
Coastal Engineering 458
Global Climate Change and the Impact on Coastlines 461
Geo Media: Evolution of the Louisiana Coastline 462
Summary of Key Concepts 463
Check Your Understanding 463
20 Relevance of Physical Geography to Environmental Issues 465
A Short History of Human Population 466
Technological Development and Population Growth 466
The Impact of Growing Human Population on the Natural Environment 467
Case 1: Water Issues in the Arid American Southwest 469
Establishing Water Rights 470
Will Water Supplies Disappear? 471
A Drought-Prone Future? 473
Case 2: Soil Salinization in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands 475
Ancient Sumeria 477
The Current Global Extent of Salinization 478
The San Joaquin Valley in California 478
Australia 481
The Challenge of Sustainable Agriculture in Semi-Arid and Arid Regions 483
Case 3: Developing Unconventional Oil Supplies in North America 485
Oil Supply, Demand, and Geography 485
Developing Unconventional Sources of Oil 487
Potential Environmental Consequences 488
Case 4: Giant Panda Conservation in China 490
The Wolong Nature Reserve 494
Case Summary 496
Summary of Key Concepts 496
Check Your Understanding 497
Glossary 498
Index 509
