Includes simulations and physical measurements for energy co
Trade Review
"Ultra-Low Energy Wireless Sensor Networks in Practice stands by itself as an essential guide to a promising-and potentially disruptive technology." (RFID Journal, February 2009)
Table of Contents
Preface xiii
List of Abbreviations xv
PART I INTRODUCTION 1
1 Introduction 3
1.1 Overview of Wireless Technologies 3
1.2 TUTWSN 5
1.3 Contents of the Book 6
PART II DESIGN SPACE OF WSNS 7
2 WSN Properties 9
2.1 Characteristics of WSNs 9
2.2 WSN Applications 11
2.2.1 Commercial WSNs 12
2.2.2 Research WSNs 14
2.3 Requirements for WSNs 16
3 Standards and Proposals 19
3.1 Standards 19
3.1.1 IEEE 1451 Standard 19
3.1.2 IEEE 802.15 Standard 21
3.2 Variations of Standards 28
3.2.1 Wibree 28
3.2.2 Z-Wave 28
3.2.3 MiWi 28
4 Sensor Node Platforms 29
4.1 Platform Components 29
4.1.1 Communication Subsystem 30
4.1.2 Computing Subsystem 33
4.1.3 Sensing Subsystem 33
4.1.4 Power Subsystem 34
4.2 Existing Platforms 36
4.3 TUTWSN Platforms 39
4.3.1 Temperature-sensing Platform 39
4.3.2 SoC Node Prototype 43
4.3.3 Ethernet Gateway Prototype 44
4.4 Antenna Design 46
4.4.1 Antenna Design Flow 46
4.4.2 Planar Antenna Types 48
4.4.3 Trade-Offs in Antenna Design 49
5 Design of WSNs 51
5.1 Design Dimensions 51
5.2 WSN Design Flow 54
5.3 Related Research on WSN Design 56
5.3.1 WSN Design Methodologies 56
5.4 WSN Evaluation Methods 60
5.5 WSN Evaluation Tools 61
5.5.1 Networking Oriented Simulators for WSN 61
5.5.2 Sensor Node Simulators 62
5.5.3 Analysis of Evaluation Tools 63
PART III WSN PROTOCOL STACK 67
6 Protocol Stack Overview 69
6.1 Outline of WSN Stack 69
6.1.1 Physical Layer 70
6.1.2 Data Link Layer 71
6.1.3 Network Layer 71
6.1.4 Transport Layer 71
6.1.5 Application Layer 72
7 MAC Protocols 73
7.1 Requirements 73
7.2 General MAC Approaches 75
7.2.1 Contention Protocols 75
7.2.2 Contention-free Protocols 77
7.2.3 Multichannel Protocols 78
7.3 WSN MAC Protocols 80
7.3.1 Synchronized Low Duty-cycle Protocols 80
7.3.2 Unsynchronized Low Duty-cycle Protocols 85
7.3.3 Wake-up Radio Protocols 87
7.3.4 Summary 88
8 Routing Protocols 91
8.1 Requirements 91
8.2 Classifications 92
8.3 Operation Principles 93
8.3.1 Nodecentric Routing 93
8.3.2 Data-centric Routing 94
8.3.3 Location-based Routing 95
8.3.4 Multipath Routing 97
8.3.5 Negotiation-based Routing 97
8.3.6 Query-based Routing 98
8.3.7 Cost Field-based Routing 99
8.4 Summary 101
9 Middleware and Application Layer 103
9.1 Motivation and Requirements 103
9.2 WSN Middleware Approaches 105
9.3 WSN Middleware Proposals 106
9.3.1 Interfaces 106
9.3.2 Virtual Machines 107
9.3.3 Database Middlewares 107
9.3.4 Mobile Agent Middlewares 108
9.3.5 Application-driven Middlewares 108
9.3.6 Programming Abstractions 109
9.3.7 WSN Middleware Analysis 110
10 Operating Systems 115
10.1 Motivation and Requirements 115
10.1.1 OS Services and Requirements 116
10.1.2 Implementation Approaches 117
10.2 Existing OSs 119
10.2.1 Event-handler OSs 120
10.2.2 Preemptive Multithreading OSs 121
10.2.3 Analysis 121
11 QoS Issues in WSN 125
11.1 Traditional QoS 125
11.2 Unique Requirements in WSNs 125
11.3 Parameters Defining WSN QoS 126
11.4 QoS Support in Protocol Layers 128
11.4.1 Application Layer 128
11.4.2 Transport Layer 128
11.4.3 Network Layer 129
11.4.4 Data Link Layer 130
11.4.5 Physical Layer 131
11.5 Summary 131
12 Security in WSNs 133
12.1 WSN Security Threats and Countermeasures 133
12.1.1 Passive Attacks 134
12.1.2 Active Attacks 134
12.2 Security Architectures for WSNs 135
12.2.1 TinySec 135
12.2.2 SPINS 136
12.2.3 IEEE 802.15.4 Security 136
12.2.4 ZigBee Security 137
12.2.5 Bluetooth Security 139
12.3 Key Distribution in WSNs 140
12.3.1 Public-key Cryptography 140
12.3.2 Pre-distributed Keys 140
12.3.3 Centralized Key Distribution 141
12.4 Summary of WSN Security Considerations 142
PART IV TUTWSN 143
13 TUTWSN MAC Protocol 145
13.1 Network Topology 145
13.2 Channel Access 147
13.3 Frequency Division 149
13.4 Advanced Mobility Support 152
13.4.1 Proactive Distribution of Neighbor Information 153
13.4.2 Neighbor-discovery Algorithm 154
13.4.3 Measured Performance of ENDP Protocol 158
13.5 Advanced Support for Bursty Traffic 159
13.5.1 Slot Reservations within a Superframe 160
13.5.2 On-demand Slot Reservation 161
13.5.3 Traffic-adaptive Slot Reservation 161
13.5.4 Performance Analysis 162
13.6 TUTWSN MAC Optimization 165
13.6.1 Reducing Radio Requirements 165
13.6.2 Network Beacon Rate Optimization 170
13.7 TUTWSN MAC Implementation 179
13.8 Measured Performance of TUTWSN MAC 180
14 TUTWSN Routing Protocol 183
14.1 Design and Implementation 183
14.2 Related Work 183
14.3 Cost-Aware Routing 184
14.3.1 Sink-initiated Route Establishment 185
14.3.2 Node-initiated Route Discovery 185
14.3.3 Traffic Classification 186
14.4 Implementation 187
14.4.1 Protocol Architecture 187
14.4.2 Implementation on TUTWSN MAC 188
14.5 Measurement Results 188
14.5.1 Network Parameter Configuration 189
14.5.2 Network Build-up Time 189
14.5.3 Distribution of Traffic 190
14.5.4 End-to-end Delays 192
15 TUTWSN API 193
15.1 Design of TUTWSN API 194
15.1.1 Gateway API 194
15.1.2 Node API 196
15.2 TUTWSN API Implementation 197
15.2.1 Gateway API 198
15.2.2 Node API 198
15.3 TUTWSN API Evaluation 200
15.3.1 Ease of Use 200
15.3.2 Resource Consumption 200
15.3.3 Operational Performance 201
16 TUTWSN SensorOS 203
16.1 SensorOS Design 203
16.1.1 SensorOS Architecture 204
16.1.2 OS Components 204
16.2 SensorOS Implementation 206
16.2.1 HAL Implementation 206
16.2.2 Component Implementation 207
16.3 SensorOS Performance Evaluation 210
16.3.1 Resource Usage 210
16.3.2 Context Switch Performance 210
16.4 Lightweight Kernel Configuration 211
16.4.1 Lightweight OS Architecture and Implementation 211
16.4.2 Performance Evaluation 212
16.5 SensorOS Bootloader Service 213
16.5.1 SensorOS Bootloader Design Principles 213
16.5.2 Bootloader Implementation 213
17 Cross-layer Issues in TUTWSN 217
17.1 Cross-layer Node Configuration 217
17.1.1 Application Layer 219
17.1.2 Routing Layer 219
17.1.3 MAC Layer 219
17.1.4 Physical Layer 220
17.1.5 Configuration Examples 220
17.2 Piggybacking Data 223
17.3 Self-configuration with Cross-layer Information 224
17.3.1 Frequency and TDMA Selection 224
17.3.2 Connectivity Maintenance 224
17.3.3 Role Selection 225
18 Protocol Analysis Models 227
18.1 PHY Power Analysis 227
18.2 Radio Energy Models 229
18.2.1 TUTWSN Radio Energy Models 230
18.2.2 ZigBee Radio Energy Models 232
18.3 Contention Models 234
18.3.1 TUTWSN Contention Models 234
18.3.2 ZigBee Contention Models 235
18.4 Node Operation Models 238
18.4.1 TUTWSN Throughput Models 238
18.4.2 ZigBee Throughput Models 239
18.4.3 TUTWSN Power Consumption Models 240
18.4.4 ZigBee Power Consumption Models 243
18.5 Summary 245
19 WISENES Design and Evaluation Environment 247
19.1 Features 247
19.2 WSN Design with WISENES 248
19.3 WISENES Framework 249
19.3.1 Short Introduction to SDL 251
19.3.2 WISENES Instantiation 252
19.3.3 Central Simulation Control 253
19.3.4 Transmission Medium 253
19.3.5 Sensing Channel 254
19.3.6 Sensor Node 254
19.4 Existing WISENES Designs 256
19.4.1 TUTWSN Stack 258
19.4.2 ZigBee Stack 260
19.5 WISENES Simulation Results 263
19.5.1 Simulated Node Platforms 264
19.5.2 Accuracy of Simulation Results 266
19.5.3 Protocol Comparison Simulations 268
PART V DEPLOYMENT 277
20 TUTWSN Deployments 279
20.1 TUTWSN Deployment Architecture 280
20.1.1 WSN Server 281
20.1.2 WSN and Gateway 282
20.1.3 Database 282
20.1.4 User Interfaces 282
20.2 Network Self-diagnostics 283
20.2.1 Problem Statement 283
20.2.2 Implementation 284
20.3 Security Experiments 290
20.3.1 Experimental KDC-based Key Distribution and Authentication Scheme 291
20.3.2 Implementation Experiments 291
21 Sensing Applications 293
21.1 Linear-position Metering 293
21.1.1 Problem Statement 293
21.1.2 Implementation 294
21.1.3 Results 296
21.2 Indoor-temperature Sensing 297
21.2.1 WSN Node Design 298
21.2.2 Results 298
21.3 Environmental Monitoring 300
21.3.1 Problem Statement 300
21.3.2 Implementation 300
21.3.3 Results 306
22 Transfer Applications 313
22.1 TCP/IP for TUTWSN 313
22.1.1 Problem Statement 313
22.1.2 Implementation 314
22.1.3 Results 316
22.2 Realtime High-performance WSN 318
22.2.1 Problem Statement 318
22.2.2 Implementation 318
22.2.3 Results 324
23 Tracking Applications 327
23.1 Surveillance System 327
23.1.1 Problem Statement 328
23.1.2 Surveillance WSN Design 328
23.1.3 WSN Prototype Implementation 331
23.1.4 Surveillance WSN Implementation on TUTWSN Prototypes 332
23.2 Indoor Positioning 334
23.2.1 Problem Statement 335
23.2.2 Implementation 335
23.3 Team Game Management 342
23.3.1 Problem Statement 343
23.3.2 Implementation 343
23.3.3 Example Application Scenario 345
PART VI CONCLUSIONS 349
24 Conclusions 351
References 353
Index 369
