Description
Book SynopsisLearnfrom this integrated approach to the management and restoration of ecosystemsedited by an international leader in the field TheHandbook of Ecological and Ecosystem Engineeringdeliversa comprehensive overview of the latest research and practical developments in the rapidly evolving fields of ecological and ecosystem engineering.Beginning with an introduction to the theory and practice of ecological engineering and ecosystem services, the book addresses a wide variety of issues central to the restorationand remediation of ecological environments. The bookcontains fulsome analyses of the restoration, rehabilitation, conservation, sustainability, reconstruction, remediation, and reclamation of ecosystems using ecological engineering techniques.Case studies are used to highlight practical applications of the theory discussed within. The material in theHandbook of Ecological and Ecosystem Engineeringis particularly relevant at a time when the human population is dramaticallyrising,and t
Table of ContentsList of Contributors xvii
Preface xxi
1 Ecological Engineering and Ecosystem Services – Theory and Practice 1
Fábio Carvalho Nunes, Thaís de Marchi Soares, Lander de Jesus Alves, José Rodrigues de Souza Filho, Cláudia Cseko Nolasco de Carvalho, and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Ecological Engineering: History and Definition 3
1.3 Ecosystem Services: History, Concepts, and Dimensions 7
1.3.1 Sizing Ecosystem Services 10
1.3.2 Agriculture and Ecosystem Services 15
1.4 Final Considerations: Challenges for the Future 19
Notes 20
References 20
2 Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering for Economic-Environmental Revitalization 25
Bruno Barbosa and Ana Luísa Fernando
2.1 Introduction 25
2.2 Revitalization of Physical/Environmental Factors 27
2.2.1 Low Temperature 27
2.2.2 Limited Soil Drainage and Shallow Rooting Depth 28
2.2.3 Unfavorable Texture and Stoniness 29
2.2.4 Sloping Areas 30
2.2.5 Dryness 30
2.2.6 Waterlogging 31
2.3 Revitalization of Chemical Factors 32
2.3.1 Acidity 32
2.3.2 Heavy Metals and Organic Contaminants 33
2.3.3 Salinity and Sodicity 34
2.4 Economic Revitalization of Degraded Soil Ecosystems 35
2.5 Conclusions 36
References 37
3 Environmental Issues and Priority Areas for Ecological Engineering Initiatives 47
Sanchayita Rajkhowa, Nazmun Ara Khanom, and Jyotirmoy Sarma
3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 Basic Concepts of Ecological Engineering 50
3.3 Practice and Implication of Ecological Engineering 53
3.4 Priority Areas for Ecological Engineering 54
3.4.1 Coastal Ecosystem Restoration 55
3.4.2 Mangrove Restoration 56
3.4.3 River and Wetland Restoration 57
3.4.4 Ecological Engineering in Soil Restoration and Agriculture 59
3.5 Conclusion 61
Notes 62
References 63
4 Soil Meso- and Macrofauna Indicators of Restoration Success in Rehabilitated Mine Sites 67
Sara Pelaez Sanchez, Ronan Courtney, and Olaf Schmidt
4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Restoration to Combat Land Degradation 67
4.3 Mine Rehabilitation 68
4.3.1 Mine Tailings 68
4.3.2 Rehabilitation of Mine Tailings 68
4.3.3 The Challenge of Metal Mine Rehabilitation 68
4.4 Restoration Success Assessment: Monitoring Diversity, Vegetation, and Ecological Processes 69
4.4.1 Monitoring Diversity 70
4.4.2 Vegetation 70
4.4.3 Ecological Processes 71
4.5 Gaps in the Assessment of Restoration Success in Mine Sites 72
4.6 Increasing Restoration Success by Enhancing Soil Biodiversity and Soil Multifunctionality 73
4.7 Using Keystone Species and Ecosystem Engineers in Restoration 74
4.7.1 Earthworms 83
4.7.2 Ants 84
4.7.3 Termites 85
4.7.4 Collembola and Mites 85
4.8 Conclusions and Further Perspective for the Restoration of Metalliferous Tailings 85
Acknowledgements 86
References 86
5 Ecological Engineering and Green Infrastructure in Mitigating Emerging Urban Environmental Threats 95
Florin-Constantin Mihai, Petra Schneider, and Mihail Eva
5.1 Dimensions of Ecological Engineering in the Frame of Ecosystem Service Provision 95
5.2 Landfill Afteruse Practices Based on Ecological Engineering and Green Infrastructure 97
5.2.1 Old Landfill Closure and Rehabilitation Procedures 97
5.2.2 Landfill Restoration Examples Around the World 98
5.2.2.1 Conventional Landfill Closure (Campulung, Romania) 98
5.2.2.2 Elbauenpark Including Am Cracauer Anger Landfill (Magdeburg, Germany) 99
5.2.2.3 World Cup Park (Nanjido Landfill, Seoul, South Korea) 99
5.2.2.4 Fudekeng Environmental Restoration Park (Taiwan) 100
5.2.2.5 Hong Kong 100
5.2.2.6 Hyria Landfill Site (Tel Aviv, Israel) 101
5.2.2.7 Valdemingomez Forest Park (Madrid, Spain) 102
5.2.2.8 Freshkills Park – A Mega Restoration Project in the US 103
5.3 Role of Ecological Engineering in Transforming Brownfields into Greenfields 104
5.3.1 UGI Options for Brownfield Recycling 107
5.3.2 Pilot Case: Restoration of a Brownfield to Provide ES – Albert Railway Station (Dresden, Germany) Transformation into the Weißeritz Greenbelt 107
5.4 Green Infrastructures for Mitigating Urban Transport-Induced Threats 112
5.4.1 Transportation Heritage from the Industrial Period 112
5.4.2 The Cases of the Rose Kennedy Greenway and Cheonggyecheon River Restoration 113
5.4.2.1 The Concept: Expressway-to-Greenway Conversion 113
5.4.2.2 Environmental Efficiency and Effectiveness 114
5.4.2.3 Social Impact 116
5.4.2.4 Economic Efficiency 116
5.5 Conclusions 117
References 118
6 Urban Environmental Issues and Mitigation by Applying Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering 123
Shailendra Yadav, Suvha Lama, and Atya Kapley
6.1 Urbanization 123
6.2 Global Trends of Urbanization and Its Consequences 124
6.3 Urban Environmental Issues 125
6.3.1 Physical Urban Environmental Issues 126
6.3.1.1 Urban Heat Islands 126
6.3.1.2 Urban Flooding 127
6.3.1.3 Urban Pollution (Air, Water, Noise) and Waste Management 128
6.3.2 Biological Urban Environmental Issues 130
6.3.2.1 Declining Urban Ecosystem Services Due to Loss of Biodiversity 130
6.3.2.2 Increasing Disease Epidemiology 131
6.4 Ecosystem Engineering 133
6.5 Approaches for Mitigation of Urban Environmental Issues 134
6.5.1 Nature-Based Solutions 134
6.5.1.1 Green Infrastructure (GI) 134
6.5.1.2 Urban Wetlands and Riparian Forests 136
6.5.1.3 Solar Energy 136
6.5.2 Artificial Engineering Approaches 137
6.5.3 Landfill Gas as an Alternative Source of Energy: Waste to Wealth 137
6.5.3.1 Wastewater/Sewage Treatment Plants as Sources of Energy 137
6.5.3.2 Rainwater Harvesting 137
6.5.3.3 Constructed Floating Islands for Water Treatment 138
6.5.3.4 Microgrids 138
6.6 Future Perspective 138
Acknowledgments 139
References 139
7 Soil Fertility Restoration, Theory and Practice 147
V. Matichenkov and E. Bocharnikova
7.1 Introduction 147
7.2 Materials and Methods 148
7.3 Results 149
7.4 Discussion and Conclusions 151
Acknowledgment 155
References 155
8 Extracellular Soil Enzymes Act as Moderators to Restore Carbon in Soil Habitats 159
Rupinder Kaur and Anand Narain Singh
8.1 Introduction 159
8.2 Soil Organic Matter (SOM) 161
8.3 Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) 162
8.4 Soil Carbon Sequestration 162
8.5 Extracellular Soil Enzymes 164
8.6 Interactive Role of Extracellular Soil Enzymes in Soil Carbon Transformation 166
8.6.1 Cellulase 167
8.6.2 β-Glucosidase 169
8.6.3 Invertase 170
8.6.4 Amylase 170
8.6.5 Xylanase 171
8.7 Conclusion 172
References 172
9 Ecological Engineering for Solid Waste Segregation, Reduction, and Resource Recovery – A Contextual Analysis in Brazil 183
Luís P. Azevedo, Fernando G. da Silva Araújo, Carlos A.F. Lagarinhos, Jorge A.S. Tenório, Denise C.R. Espinosa, and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
9.1 Introduction 183
9.2 Municipal Solid Waste in Brazil 188
9.3 Compostable Waste 189
9.4 Anaerobic Digestion 190
9.5 Recycling 190
9.6 Burning Waste Tires 190
9.7 Energy Recovery 191
9.8 Coprocessing Industrial Waste in Cement Kilns 192
9.9 Conclusions 193
References 195
10 Urban Floods and Mitigation by Applying Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering 201
Jyotirmoy Sarma and Sanchayita Rajkhowa
10.1 Sustainable Ecosystems through Engineering Approaches 201
10.2 Flooding and, Specifically, Urban Flooding as a Problem of Interest 202
10.3 Causes and Impacts of Urban Flooding 204
10.4 Protection Against and Mitigation of Urban Flooding in the Context of Sustainability 207
10.4.1 Living with Floods as a Sustainable Approach 208
10.4.2 Urban Flood Risk Management 208
10.4.3 Integrated and Interactive Flood Management 209
10.4.4 Structural and Nonstructural Measures for Flood Control 210
10.4.5 River and Wetland Restoration 211
10.4.6 Low Impact Development (LID) and Best Management Practices (BMPs) 214
10.5 Conclusions and Future Scope 215
References 216
11 Ecological Engineering and Restoration of Mine Ecosystems 219
Marcin Pietrzykowski
11.1 Background and Definitions 219
11.2 Ecological Criteria for Successful Mine Site Restoration 222
11.3 Examples of Reclamation Technology and Afforestation in Mining Areas 223
11.4 Selected Reclamation Practices Versus Mining Extraction and Environmental Conditions 226
11.5 Final Comments and Remarks 227
References 228
12 Ecological Restoration of Abandoned Mine Land: Theory to Practice 231
Jitendra Ahirwal and Subodh Kumar Maiti
12.1 Introduction 231
12.2 Integration of Ecology Theory, Restoration Ecology, and Ecological Restoration 233
12.2.1 Disturbance 233
12.2.2 Succession 233
12.2.3 Fragmentation 233
12.2.4 Ecosystem Functions 233
12.2.5 Restoration 233
12.2.6 Reclamation 234
12.2.7 Rehabilitation 234
12.2.8 Regeneration 234
12.2.9 Recovery 234
12.3 Restoration Planning 235
12.4 Components of Restoration 236
12.4.1 Natural Processes 236
12.4.2 Physical and Nutritional Constraints 236
12.4.3 Species Diversity 237
12.5 Afforestation of Mine-Degraded Land 237
12.5.1 Miyawaki Planting Methods 237
12.6 Methods of Evaluating Ecological Restoration Success 239
12.6.1 Criteria for Restoration Success 239
12.6.2 Indicator Parameters of a Restored Ecosystem 240
12.6.3 Soil Quality Index 241
12.7 Development of a Post-Mining Ecosystem: A Case Study in India 242
12.8 Conclusions and Future Research 244
References 245
13 Wetland, Watershed, and Lake Restoration 247
Bhupinder Dhir
13.1 Introduction 247
13.2 Renovation of Wastewater 247
13.2.1 Physical Methods 248
13.2.2 Chemical Methods 248
13.2.3 Biological Methods 248
13.2.4 Other Methods 249
13.3 Restoration of Bodies of Water 250
13.3.1 Watersheds 251
13.3.2 Wetlands 252
13.3.2.1 Methods of Restoring Wetlands 253
13.3.3 Rivers 253
13.3.4 Lakes 254
13.3.5 Streams 254
13.3.6 Case Studies 255
13.4 Problems Encountered in Restoration Projects 255
13.5 Conclusion 256
References 256
14 Restoration of Riverine Health: An Ecohydrological Approach –Flow Regimes and Aquatic Biodiversity 261
S.P. Biswas
14.1 Introduction 261
14.2 Habitat Ecology 261
14.2.1 Riverine Habitats 262
14.2.2 Linked Ecosystems 262
14.3 Riverine Issues 262
14.3.1 Bank Erosion, Siltation, and Aggradations of Rivers 263
14.3.2 Deforestation in Catchment Areas 264
14.3.3 River Pollution and Invasive Species 266
14.3.4 Fishing Pressure 266
14.3.5 Status of Wetlands (FPLs) 267
14.3.6 Regulated Rivers and Their Impacts 267
14.4 Ecorestoration of River Basins 268
14.4.1 Environmental Flow 268
14.4.2 Success Story of a Conservation Effort for Aquatic Fauna 268
14.4.2.1 River Dolphins 268
14.4.2.2 Hilsa Fishery 270
14.4.3 Biomonitoring of Riverine Health and Ecosystem Engineering 270
14.4.4 Integrated River Basin Management 271
14.5 Summary and Conclusion 273
Acknowledgments 274
References 274
15 Ecosystem Services of the Phoomdi Islands of Loktak, a Dying Ramsar Site in Northeast India 279
Sijagurumayum Geetanjali Devi, Niteshwori Thongam, Maibam Dhanaraj Meitei, and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
15.1 What Are Ecosystem Services? 279
15.2 Phoomdi Islands of Loktak 279
15.3 Ecosystem Degradation of Loktak 280
15.4 Ecosystem Services Provided by the Phoomdi Islands of Loktak 284
15.5 Phoomdi and Provisioning Services 284
15.6 Phoomdi as Reservoirs of Biodiversity 287
15.7 Phoomdi and Fisheries 288
15.8 Phoomdi and Cultural Services 288
15.9 Phoomdi and Regulating Services 289
15.10 Phoomdi and Supporting Services 289
15.11 Conclusion 290
Acknowledgments 291
References 291
16 The Application of Reefs in Shoreline Protection 295
Anu Joy and Anu Gopinath
16.1 General Introduction 295
16.2 Types of Coral Reefs 296
16.3 Global Distribution of Coral Reefs 296
16.4 Benefits of Coral Reefs 296
16.5 Threats to Coral Reefs 298
16.5.1 Global Threats 298
16.5.1.1 Ocean Acidification 299
16.5.1.2 Coral Bleaching 299
16.5.1.3 Cyclones 300
16.5.2 Local Threats 300
16.5.2.1 Over-Fishing and Destructive Fishing Methods 300
16.5.2.2 Coastal Development 300
16.5.2.3 Recreational Activities 300
16.5.2.4 Sedimentation 300
16.5.2.5 Coral Mining and Harvesting 300
16.5.2.6 Pollution 301
16.5.2.7 Invasive Species 301
16.6 Important Coral Reefs of the World 301
16.7 The Application of Reefs in Shoreline Protection 303
16.7.1 Coral Reefs 304
16.7.2 Oyster Reefs 307
16.7.3 Artificial Reefs 307
16.7.4 Coral Reef Restoration 308
16.7.5 Oyster Reef Restoration 309
16.8 Conclusion 310
References 310
17 Mangroves, as Shore Engineers, Are Nature-Based Solutions for Ensuring Coastal Protection 317
Ajanta Dey, J.R.B. Alfred, Biswajit Roy Chowdhury, and Udo Censkowsky
17.1 Introduction 317
17.2 Sundarban: A Case Study 318
17.3 Restoration Models 319
17.4 Methodology 320
17.5 Results and Analysis 326
17.6 Conclusion 329
Acknowledgments 330
References 331
18 Forest Degradation Prevention Through Nature-Based Solutions: An Indian Perspective 333
Purabi Saikia, Akash Nag, Rima Kumari, Amit Kumar, and M.L. Khan
18.1 Introduction 333
18.2 Causes of Forests Degradation and Present Status Forests in India 335
18.3 Effects of Forest Degradation 338
18.4 Forest Degradation Management Strategies 339
18.5 Policies for Preventing Forest Degradation 339
18.6 Ecological Engineering: A Tool for Restoration of Degraded Forests 341
18.7 Forest Landscape Restoration: A Nature-Based Solution 342
18.8 Success Stories of ER from India 342
18.9 Yamuna Biodiversity Park 343
18.10 Ecological Restoration in Corbett National Park 343
18.11 Conclusion and Recommendations 345
References 345
19 Restoring Ecosystem Services of Degraded Forests in a Changing Climate 353
Smita Chaudhry, Gagan Preet Singh Sidhu, and Rashmi Paliwal
19.1 Introduction 353
19.2 Role of Forests in Maintaining Ecological Balance and Providing Services 354
19.2.1 Forests and Rainfall 355
19.2.2 Forests and Carbon Sequestration 355
19.2.3 Forests and Climate 356
19.2.4 Forests and Soil Erosion 356
19.2.5 Forest and Water Quality 357
19.3 Types of Forests in India 357
19.4 Forest Degradation 357
19.4.1 Invasive Alien Species 360
19.4.2 Forest Fires 361
19.4.3 Overpopulation and Exploitation of Forest Resources 361
19.4.4 Overgrazing 361
19.5 Impacts of Forest Degradation 362
19.5.1 Carbon Sequestration 362
19.6 Nutritional Status of Soil 362
19.7 Hydrological Regimes 362
19.8 Ecological Services 363
19.9 Social Implications 363
19.10 Methods for Restoring and Rehabilitating Forests 364
19.11 Conclusion 367
References 368
20 Forest Degradation Prevention 377
Marta Jaskulak and Anna Grobelak
20.1 Introduction 377
20.2 The Problem of Forest Degradation 379
20.3 Assessing Levels of Forest Degradation 380
20.4 Drivers of Forest Degradation 382
20.4.1 Strategies to Address Causes of Forest Degradation 382
20.4.2 The Hierarchy of Land Degradation Responses 383
20.5 The Role of Forest Management in Degradation Prevention 384
20.5.1 Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) for Prevention of Degradation and the Restoration of Degraded Areas 385
20.6 Conclusions – Prioritization and Implementation 387
References 387
21 Use of Plants for Air Quality Improvement 391
Richa Rai, Madhoolika Agrawal, and S.B. Agrawal
21.1 Introduction 391
21.2 Current Status of Air Pollutants 392
21.3 Green Roofs, Urban Forests, and Air Pollution 393
21.4 Traits for Phytoremediation of Air Pollution 397
21.4.1 Physiological and Biochemical Traits 398
21.5 Conclusions 400
References 400
22 Phylloremediation for Mitigating Air Pollution 405
Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
22.1 Introduction 405
22.2 Significance of Tree Canopy Architecture and Types of Canopies for Mitigating Air Pollution 407
22.3 Air-Improving Qualities of Plants 414
22.3.1 Dust-Capturing Mechanisms Using Plants 414
22.3.2 Environmental Factors for Efficient Dust Capture by Plants 414
22.3.2.1 Light Intensity 414
22.3.2.2 Moisture 414
22.3.2.3 Wind Velocity 414
22.4 Effects of Vegetation on Urban Air Quality 414
22.4.1 Interception and Absorption of Pollution 414
22.4.2 Temperature Effects 416
22.4.3 Impact on Energy Use 416
22.5 Urban Air Quality Improvement through Dust-Capturing Plant Species 416
Acknowledgments 417
References 417
23 Green Belts for Sustainable Improvement of Air Quality 423
S.B. Chaphekar, R.P. Madav, and Seemaa S. Ghate
23.1 Introduction 423
23.2 Tolerance of Plants to Air Pollutants 424
23.2.1 Agro-Climates in India 425
23.2.2 Green Belts 426
23.2.3 Choosing Plant Species 427
23.2.4 Designing Green Belts 427
23.2.4.1 Ground-Level Concentration (GLC) of Emitted Pollutants 427
23.2.4.2 Mathematical Model 429
23.2.4.3 Two Approaches 430
23.2.4.4 Planting Along Roadsides 430
23.2.4.5 Choice of Plants for Roadsides 431
23.2.4.6 Nurturing Green Belts 431
23.3 Conclusion 433
References 433
24 Air Quality Improvement Using Phytodiversity and Plant Architecture 437
D.N. Magana-Arachchi and R.P. Wanigatunge
24.1 Introduction 437
24.2 Phytodiversity 438
24.3 Plant Architecture 438
24.3.1 Leaf Architecture – Regulation of Leaf Position 439
24.3.2 Development of Internal Leaf Architecture 439
24.4 Phytoremediation 440
24.4.1 Role of Plants During Particulate Matter and Gaseous Phytoremediation 440
24.4.2 Ways of Improving Air Quality 442
24.4.2.1 Outdoor Air Pollutants 442
24.4.2.2 Indoor Air Pollutants 444
24.4.2.3 Phyllosphere Microorganisms 444
24.5 Conclusion 446
Acknowledgment 446
References 446
25 Information Explosion in Digital Ecosystems and Their Management 451
Chanchal Kumar Mitra and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
25.1 Introduction 451
25.1.1 Digital Computers 452
25.1.2 Modern Architectures for Computer Systems 452
25.1.3 Microprocessors 454
25.1.4 Networks of Computers 454
25.1.5 Development of Databases 455
25.1.6 Data as Knowledge 456
25.2 Growth 456
25.2.1 Traditional Models for Growth 456
25.2.2 Growth Curves 457
25.2.3 Limits of Growth 458
25.2.4 Growth vs. Life 459
25.3 Sustainability 459
25.3.1 Production vs. Consumption 459
25.4 Knowledge vs. Information 460
25.5 Circulation of Information 460
25.6 Quality vs. Quantity 461
25.6.1 Case Study 1: Facebook and Cambridge Analytica Scandal 461
25.6.2 Case Study 2: Aarogya Setu Mobile App by National Informatics Centre (NIC) of the GoI 462
25.7 How Does the Digital Ecosystem Work? 462
25.7.1 Digital Ecosystem and Sustainable Development 463
25.7.2 SDG 4: Quality Education 465
25.7.3 SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth 465
25.7.4 SDG 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure 465
25.7.5 SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities 466
25.7.6 SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production 466
25.8 Conclusions 466
References 466
26 Nanotechnology in Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering 469
L.R. Sendanayake, H.A.D.B. Amarasiri, and Nadeesh M. Adassooriya
26.1 Ecology, Ecosystem, and Ecosystem Engineering 469
26.2 Nanomaterials, Nanotechnology, and Nanoscience 469
26.3 Nanotechnology in Ecological and Ecosystem-Engineering 470
26.4 Nanotechnology to Remediate Environmental Pollution 470
26.5 Environmental Remediation 471
26.6 Surface Water Remediation 471
26.6.1 Adsorption 472
26.6.2 Photocatalysis 473
26.6.3 Disinfection 474
26.6.4 Nanomembranes 475
26.7 Groundwater Remediation and Soil Remediation 475
26.8 Air Remediation 478
26.9 Future Scope of Nanotechnology and Nanoscience in Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering 479
References 480
Index 487
