Description
Book SynopsisLarry Mays' Hydrology is a comprehensive text stressing fundamentals of hydrologic process for both surface water hydrology and groundwater hydrology. The text makes use of internet resources, such as free modeling tools, to help solve more complicated and real-world problems more quickly, and motivate interest in the topics.
Table of ContentsAbout the Author v Preface vii
Chapter 1 Hydrology, Climate Change, and Sustainability 1
1.1 Introduction to Hydrologic Processes 1
1.1.1 What is Hydrology? 1
1.1.2 Why Study Hydrology? 1
1.1.3 The Hydrologic Cycle 3
1.1.4 Hydrologic Systems 4
1.1.5 Surface Water in the Hydrologic Cycle 5
1.1.6 Groundwater in the Hydrologic Cycle 5
1.1.7 Control Volume Approach for Hydrologic Processes 7
1.2 Climate Change Effects and the Hydrologic Cycle 8
1.2.1 The Climate System 8
1.2.2 What is Climate Change? 10
1.2.3 Climate Change Prediction 11
1.2.4 Hydrologic Effects of Climate Change 12
1.3 Anthropogenic Effects on the Hydrologic Cycle 16
1.3.1 Urbanization 16
1.3.2 Land and Water Management Effects on the Hydrologic Cycle 17
1.4 Water Resources Sustainability 18
1.5 Hydrologic Budgets 19
1.6 Hydrologic Data and Publication Sources 21
1.7 U.S. Geological Survey Publications 22
Problems 25
References 25
Chapter 2 Occurrence of Groundwater 27
2.1 Origin of Groundwater 27
2.2 Rock Properties Affecting Groundwater 27
2.2.1 Aquifers 27
2.2.2 Porosity 28
2.2.3 Soil Classification 31
2.2.4 Porosity and Representative Elementary Volume 33
2.2.5 Specific Surface 33
2.3 Vertical Distribution of Groundwater 36
2.4 Zone of Aeration 37
2.4.1 Soil Water Zone 37
2.4.2 Intermediate Vadose Zone 38
2.4.3 Capillary Zone 38
2.4.4 Measurement of Water Content 40
2.4.5 Available Water 40
2.5 Zone of Saturation 41
2.5.1 Specific Retention 41
2.5.2 Specific Yield 41
2.6 Geologic Formations as Aquifers 42
2.6.1 Alluvial Deposits 43
2.6.2 Limestone 43
2.6.3 Volcanic Rock 44
2.6.4 Sandstone 46
2.6.5 Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks 46
2.6.6 Clay 46
2.7 Types of Aquifers 46
2.7.1 Unconfined Aquifer 46
2.7.2 Confined Aquifers 46
2.7.3 Leaky Aquifer 48
2.7.4 Idealized Aquifer 48
2.8 Storage Coefficient 48
2.9 Groundwater Basins/Regional Groundwater Flow Systems 50
2.9.1 High Plains Aquifer 52
2.9.2 Gulf Coastal Plain Aquifer System 54
2.10 Springs 54
2.10.1 What Are Springs? 54
2.10.2 Edwards Aquifer—Discharge of Springs 61
2.11 Groundwater in the United States 63
Problems 70
References 71
Chapter 3 Groundwater Movement 75
3.1 Darcy’s Law 75
3.1.1 Experimental Verification 75
3.1.2 Darcy Velocity 78
3.1.3 Validity of Darcy’s Law 78
3.2 Permeability 79
3.2.1 Intrinsic Permeability 79
3.2.2 Hydraulic Conductivity 80
3.2.3 Transmissivity 80
3.2.4 Hydraulic Conductivity of Geologic Materials 81
3.3 Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity 82
3.3.1 Formulas 82
3.3.2 Laboratory Methods 83
3.3.3 Tracer Tests 85
3.3.4 Auger Hole Tests 87
3.3.5 Pumping Tests of Wells 88
3.4 Anisotropic Aquifers 89
3.5 Groundwater Flow Rates 91
3.6 General Flow Equations 93
3.7 Unsaturated Flow 95
3.7.1 Flow Through Unsaturated Soils 96
3.7.2 Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity 99
3.7.3 Vertical and Horizontal Flows 103
Problems 104
References 105
Chapter 4 Groundwater and Well Hydraulics 109
4.1 Steady Unidirectional Flow 109
4.1.1 Confined Aquifer 109
4.1.2 Unconfined Aquifer 110
4.1.3 Base Flow to a Stream 112
4.2 Steady Radial Flow to a Well 115
4.2.1 Confined Aquifer 115
4.2.2 Unconfined Aquifer 120
4.2.3 Unconfined Aquifer with Uniform Recharge 122
4.3 Well in a Uniform Flow 124
4.4 Unsteady Radial Flow in a Confined Aquifer 126
4.4.1 Nonequilibrium Well Pumping Equation 126
4.4.2 Theis Method of Solution 127
4.4.3 Cooper–Jacob Method of Solution 129
4.4.4 Chow Method of Solution 132
4.4.5 Recovery Test 132
4.5 Unsteady Radial Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer 135
4.6 Unsteady Radial Flow in a Leaky Aquifer 140
4.7 Well Flow Near Aquifer Boundaries 143
4.7.1 Well Flow Near a Stream 143
4.7.2 Well Flow Near an Impermeable Boundary 148
4.7.3 Well Flow Near Other Boundaries 151
4.7.4 Location of Aquifer Boundary 153
4.8 Multiple Well Systems 154
4.9 Partially Penetrating Wells 158
4.10 Well Flow for Special Conditions 160
4.11 Slug Tests 161
4.11.1 Definition 161
4.11.2 Design Guidelines 161
4.11.3 Performance of Slug Tests 162
4.11.4 Methods for Analyzing Slug-Test Data 164
4.12 Slug Tests for Confined Formations 166
4.12.1 Cooper, Bredehoeft, and Papadopulos Method 166
4.12.2 Hvorslev Method 170
4.13 Slug Tests for Unconfined Formations 172
4.13.1 Bouwer and Rice Method 173
4.13.2 Dagan Method 179
Problems 182
References 189
Chapter 5 Artificial Recharge, Stormwater Infiltration, and Saltwater Intrusion Prevention 193
5.1 Artificial Recharge 193
5.1.1 Recharge Systems 193
5.1.2 Recharge Mounds 195
5.2 Stormwater Infiltration Basin Mound Development 203
5.2.1 Potential Flow Model for a Trench 204
5.2.2 Potential Flow Model for Circular Basin 205
5.2.3 Mound Growth 208
5.2.4 Mound Recession 209
5.3 Saline Water Intrusion in Aquifers 210
5.3.1 Occurrence of Saline Water Intrusion 210
5.3.2 Ghyben–Herzberg Relation Between Freshwater and Saline Water 211
5.3.3 Shape of the Freshwater–Saltwater Interface 213
5.3.4 Structure of the Freshwater–Saltwater Interface 216
5.3.5 Effect of Wells on Seawater Intrusion 219
5.3.6 Upconing of Saline Water 221
5.3.7 Control of Saline Water Intrusion 225
Problems 227
References 228
Chapter 6 Groundwater Flow Modeling 231
6.1 Introduction 231
6.1.1 Why Develop Groundwater Models? 231
6.1.2 Types of Groundwater Models 232
6.1.3 Steps in the Development of a Groundwater Model 232
6.2 Three-Dimensional Groundwater Flow Model 233
6.2.1 Derivation of Finite Difference Equations 233
6.2.2 Simulation of Boundaries 239
6.2.3 Vertical Discretization 239
6.2.4 Hydraulic Conductance Equations 240
6.3 MODFLOW-2005 Description 243
6.3.1 Model Introduction 243
6.3.2 Space and Time Discretization 245
6.3.3 External Sources and Stresses 246
6.3.4 Hydraulic Conductance—Layer-Property Flow (LPF) Package 248
6.3.5 Solver Packages 251
6.3.6 Telescopic Mesh Refinement 252
6.4 Case Study: Using MODFLOW: Lake Five-O, Florida 256
6.4.1 Finite Difference Grid and Boundary Conditions 256
6.4.2 Model Calibration and Sensitivity Analysis 256
6.4.3 Model Results 260
6.5 Example Applications and Input of MODFLOW 261
Problems 270
References 271
Chapter 7 Hydrologic Processes 273
7.1 Introduction to Surface Water Hydrology 273
7.1.1 What is Surface Water Hydrology? 273
7.1.2 The Hydrologic Cycle 273
7.1.3 Hydrologic Systems 273
7.1.4 Atmospheric and Ocean Circulation 278
7.1.5 Hydrologic Budget 280
7.2 Precipitation (Rainfall) 281
7.2.1 Precipitation Formation and Types 281
7.2.2 Rainfall Variability 282
7.2.3 Disposal of Rainfall on a Watershed 283
7.2.4 Design Storms 286
7.2.5 Estimated Limiting Storms 301
7.3 Evaporation 304
7.3.1 Energy Balance Method 304
7.3.2 Aerodynamic Method 307
7.3.3 Combined Method 309
7.4 Infiltration 310
7.4.1 Unsaturated Flow 310
7.4.2 Green–Ampt Method 313
7.4.3 Other Infiltration Methods 319
Problems 321
References 324
Chapter 8 Surface Runoff 327
8.1 Drainage Basins and Storm Hydrographs 327
8.1.1 Drainage Basins and Runoff 327
8.2 Hydrologic Losses, Rainfall Excess, and Hydrograph Components 331
8.2.1 Hydrograph Components 333
8.2.2 F-Index Method 333
8.2.3 Rainfall-Runoff Analysis 335
8.3 Rainfall-Runoff Analysis Using Unit Hydrograph Approach 335
8.4 Synthetic Unit Hydrographs 338
8.4.1 Snyder’s Synthetic Unit Hydrograph 338
8.4.2 Clark Unit Hydrograph 339
8.5 S-Hydrographs 343
8.6 NRCS (SCS) Rainfall-Runoff Relation 345
8.7 Curve Number Estimation and Abstractions 347
8.7.1 Antecedent Moisture Conditions 347
8.7.2 Soil Group Classification 348
8.7.3 Curve Numbers 351
8.8 NRCS (SCS) Unit Hydrograph Procedure 354
8.8.1 Time of Concentration 355
8.8.2 Time to Peak 357
8.8.3 Peak Discharge 357
8.9 Kinematic Wave Overland Flow Runoff Model 358
8.10 Computer Models for Rainfall-Runoff Analysis 363
Problems 365
References 372
Chapter 9 Reservoir and Streamflow Routing 375
9.1 Routing 375
9.2 Hydrologic Reservoir Routing 376
9.3 Hydrologic River Routing 380
9.4 Hydraulic (Distributed) Routing 384
9.4.1 Unsteady Flow Equations: Continuity Equation 385
9.4.2 Momentum Equation 387
9.5 Kinematic Wave Model for Channels 390
9.5.1 Kinematic Wave Equations 390
9.5.2 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Kinematic Wave Model for Overland Flow and Channel Routing 392
9.5.3 KINEROS2 Channel Flow Routing Model 393
9.5.4 Kinematic Wave Celerity 394
9.6 Muskingum–Cunge Model 395
9.7 Implicit Dynamic Wave Model 396
9.8 Distributed Routing in U.S. Army Corps of Engineers HEC-RAS 398
Problems 401
References 406
Chapter 10 Probability, Risk, and Uncertainty Analysis for Hydrologic and Hydraulic Design 407
10.1 Probability Concepts 407
10.2 Commonly Used Probability Distributions 410
10.2.1 Normal Distribution 410
10.2.2 Log-Normal Distribution 410
10.2.3 Gumbel (Extreme Value Type I) Distribution 413
10.3 Hydrologic Design for Water Excess Management 414
10.3.1 Hydrologic Design Scale 414
10.3.2 Hydrologic Design Level (Return Period) 416
10.3.3 Hydrologic Risk 416
10.3.4 Hydrologic Data Series 417
10.4 Hydrologic Frequency Analysis 419
10.4.1 Frequency Factor Equation 419
10.4.2 Application of Log-Pearson III Distribution 420
10.4.3 Extreme Value Distribution 425
10.5 U.S. Water Resources Council Guidelines for Flood Flow Frequency Analysis 425
10.5.1 Procedure 426
10.5.2 Testing for Outliers 427
10.6 Analysis of Uncertainties 430
10.7 Risk Analysis: Composite Hydrologic and Hydraulic Risk 433
10.7.1 Reliability Computation by Direct Integration 434
10.7.2 Reliability Computation Using Safety Margin/Safety Factor 435
10.8 Computer Models for Flood-Flow Frequency Analysis 437
Problems 438
References 441
Chapter 11 Hydrologic Design and Floodplain Analysis 443
11.1 Hydrologic Design for Stormwater Management: Storm Sewers Design 443
11.1.1 Rational Method Design 443
11.1.2 Risk-Based Design of Storm Sewers 451
11.2 Hydrologic Design of Stormwater Detention 453
11.2.1 Why Detention? Effects of Urbanization 453
11.2.2 Sizing Detention 454
11.2.3 Detention Basin Routing 455
11.2.4 Preliminary Sizing of Detention: Modified Rational Method 456
11.2.5 Infiltration Basin Design 460
11.3 Floodplain Analysis 461
11.3.1 Floodplain Analysis Components 461
11.3.2 Floodplain Hydraulics 464
11.3.3 Water Surface Profile Computation 468
11.4 Flood-Control Alternatives 472
11.4.1 Structural Alternatives 473
11.4.2 Nonstructural Alternatives 477
11.4.3 Flood Damage and Net Benefit Estimation 478
11.5 Urban Flood Management: A Matter of Water Resources Sustainability 480
11.5.1 Urban Flood Management and Sustainability 480
11.5.2 Climate Change, Urbanization, and Integrated Management 481
11.5.3 Developing Countries and Flood Management 482
11.5.4 Developed Countries and Flood Disasters 482
11.6 Water Supply for Crop Water Requirements: Evapotranspiration Calculations 483
11.6.1 Combination Equation 483
11.6.2 FAO-56 Penman–Monteith Equation 484
11.6.3 Meteorological Data and Factors 485
11.6.4 Radiation Calculations 489
11.6.5 ASCE-EWRI Standardized Penman-Monteith Equation 493
11.7 Hydrologic Design for Water Supply 494
11.7.1 Surface Water Reservoir Systems 494
11.7.2 Storage—Firm Yield Analysis forWater Supply 495
11.7.3 Reservoir Simulation 503
Problems 505
References 508
Chapter 12 Hydrologic Measurement 511
12.1 Atmosphere-Land Interface 511
12.1.1 Wind, Humidity, and Solar Radiation 512
12.1.2 Precipitation 515
12.1.3 Evaporation 519
12.1.4 Weather/Climate Stations 521
12.1.5 Infiltration 522
12.2 Discharge Measurement 523
12.2.1 Weir 523
12.2.2 Flumes 527
12.3 Streamflow Measurement 528
12.3.1 Measuring Stage 528
12.3.2 Velocity-Area-Integration Method 531
12.3.3 Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler 533
12.4 Groundwater Measurement 534
12.5 Automated Data Acquisition and Transmission Systems 536
12.6 Hydrologic Monitoring Systems 538
12.6.1 Urban Stormwater Systems 538
12.6.2 Flood Early-Warning Systems 541
Problems 541
References 542
Chapter 13 Hydrology of Specific Climates 543
13.1 Hydrology of Arid and Semiarid Climates 543
13.1.1 Physical Features 543
13.1.2 Hydrologic Processes 545
13.1.3 Rainfall Hyetographs for Arabian Gulf States 548
13.1.4 Design Rainfall Patterns for Arizona 549
13.1.5 Hydrology of Alluvial Fan Flooding 549
13.2 Hydrology of Cold Climates 555
13.2.1 Snowpack, Snow Water Equivalent, and Snowmelt Runoff 556
13.2.2 Snowmelt—Energy Budget Solutions 558
13.2.3 Snowmelt—Temperature Index Solutions 561
13.2.4 Models for Snowmelt Runoff 562
13.3 Hydrology of Humid Tropical Climates 562
13.3.1 ENSO: El Ni~no-Southern Oscillation 563
13.3.2 Rainfall for Drainage Design 565
13.3.3 Rainfall Interception—Vegetation Canopy 567
13.4 Introduction to Watershed Hydrology Models 569
13.4.1 What are Watershed Models? 570
13.4.2 Classification of Watershed Models 571
13.4.3 Distributed Model Spatial Configurations 572
13.4.4 Discussion of Selected Models 573
References 574
Appendix A Control Volume Approach for Hydrosystems 577
Continuity 580
Energy 581
Momentum 583
Appendix B NWS Precipitation Frequency Documents 585
Appendix C U.S. Army Corps of Engineers HEC-HMS 589
Watershed and Meteorological Description 589
Example Application 591
References 597
Appendix D U.S. Army Corps of Engineers HEC-RAS 599
HEC-RAS Model Features 599
Cross-Sections 599
Cross-Section Description for Conveyance Calculation 600
Cross-Section Interpolation 600
Cross-Sections at Junctions 601
Bridge Description 601
Encroachment Methods Floodplain Analysis 602
Reference 606
Index
