- Human hearing and individual and community response to noise and vibration
- Noise and vibration instrumentation and measurements
- Interior and exterior noise of aircraft as well as road and rail vehicles
- Methods for the control of noise and vibration in industrial equipment and machinery
Table of Contents
Series Preface xix
Preface xxi
Acknowledgements xxiii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Types of Noise and Vibration Signals 1
1.2.1 Stationary Signals 2
1.2.2 Nonstationary Signals 2
1.3 Frequency Analysis 3
1.3.1 Fourier Series 3
1.3.2 Nonperiodic Functions and the Fourier Spectrum 6
1.3.3 Random Noise 6
1.3.4 Mean Square Values 8
1.3.5 Energy and Power Spectral Densities 9
1.4 Frequency Analysis Using Filters 10
1.5 Fast Fourier Transform Analysis 15
References 17
2 Vibration of Simple and Continuous Systems 19
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Simple Harmonic Motion 19
2.2.1 Period, Frequency, and Phase 20
2.2.2 Velocity and Acceleration 21
2.3 Vibrating Systems 23
2.3.1 Mass–Spring System 23
2.4 Multi-Degree of Freedom Systems 30
2.4.1 Free Vibration – Undamped 31
2.4.2 Forced Vibration – Undamped 34
2.4.3 Effect of Damping 36
2.5 Continuous Systems 38
2.5.1 Vibration of Beams 38
2.5.2 Vibration of Thin Plates 41
References 46
3 Sound Generation and Propagation 49
3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 Wave Motion 49
3.3 Plane Sound Waves 50
3.3.1 Sound Pressure 54
3.3.2 Particle Velocity 54
3.3.3 Impedance and Sound Intensity 55
3.3.4 Energy Density 55
3.3.5 Sound Power 56
3.4 Decibels and Levels 56
3.4.1 Sound Pressure Level 56
3.4.2 Sound Power Level 57
3.4.3 Sound Intensity Level 57
3.4.4 Combination of Decibels 58
3.5 Three-dimensional Wave Equation 60
3.6 Sources of Sound 61
3.6.1 Sound Intensity 63
3.7 Sound Power of Sources 63
3.7.1 Sound Power of Idealized Sound Sources 63
3.8 Sound Sources Above a Rigid Hard Surface 67
3.9 Directivity 68
3.9.1 Directivity Factor (Q(θ, ϕ)) 70
3.9.2 Directivity Index 71
3.10 Line Sources 71
3.11 Reflection, Refraction, Scattering, and Diffraction 72
3.12 Ray Acoustics 74
3.13 Energy Acoustics 75
3.14 Near Field, Far Field, Direct Field, and Reverberant Field 76
3.14.1 Reverberation 76
3.14.2 Sound Absorption 77
3.14.3 Reverberation Time 78
3.15 Room Equation 80
3.15.1 Critical Distance 81
3.15.2 Noise Reduction 82
3.16 Sound Radiation From Idealized Structures 82
3.17 Standing Waves 85
3.18 Waveguides 91
3.19 Other Approaches 92
3.19.1 Acoustical Lumped Elements 92
3.19.2 Numerical Approaches: Finite Elements and Boundary Elements 92
3.19.3 Acoustic Modeling Using Equivalent Circuits 93
References 93
4 Human Hearing, Speech and Psychoacoustics 95
4.1 Introduction 95
4.2 Construction of Ear and Its Working 95
4.2.1 Construction of the Ear 95
4.2.2 Working of the Ear Mechanism 98
4.2.3 Theories of Hearing 98
4.3 Subjective Response 99
4.3.1 Hearing Envelope 99
4.3.2 Loudness Measurement 99
4.3.3 Masking 103
4.3.4 Pitch 107
4.3.5 Weighted Sound Pressure Levels 108
4.3.6 Critical Bands 111
4.3.7 Frequency (Bark) 112
4.3.8 Zwicker Loudness 113
4.3.9 Loudness Adaptation 115
4.3.10 Empirical Loudness Meter 115
4.4 Hearing Loss and Diseases (Disorders) 116
4.4.1 Conduction Hearing Loss 116
4.4.2 Sensory-Neural Hearing Loss 117
4.4.3 Presbycusis 118
4.5 Speech Production 118
References 122
5 Effects of Noise, Vibration, and Shock on People 125
5.1 Introduction 125
5.2 Sleep Disturbance 125
5.3 Annoyance 126
5.4 Cardiovascular Effects 127
5.5 Cognitive Impairment 129
5.6 Infrasound, Low-Frequency Noise, and Ultrasound 130
5.7 Intense Noise and Hearing Loss 131
5.7.1 Theories for Noise-Induced Hearing Loss 132
5.7.2 Impulsive and Impact Noise 133
5.8 Occupational Noise Regulations 134
5.8.1 Daily Noise Dose and Time-Weighted Average Calculation 137
5.9 Hearing Protection 140
5.9.1 Hearing Protectors 140
5.9.2 Hearing Conservation Programs 143
5.10 Effects of Vibration on People 144
5.11 Metrics to Evaluate Effects of Vibration and Shock on People 147
5.11.1 Acceleration Frequency Weightings 147
5.11.2 Whole-Body Vibration Dose Value 147
5.11.3 Evaluation of Hand-Transmitted Vibration 149
References 151
6 Description, Criteria, and Procedures Used to Determine Human Response to Noise and Vibration 155
6.1 Introduction 155
6.2 Loudness and Annoyance 155
6.3 Loudness and Loudness Level 156
6.4 Noisiness and Perceived Noise Level 157
6.4.1 Noisiness 157
6.4.2 Effective Perceived Noise Level 159
6.5 Articulation Index and Speech Intelligibility Index 160
6.6 Speech Interference Level 161
6.7 Indoor Noise Criteria 162
6.7.1 NC Curves 162
6.7.2 NR Curves 163
6.7.3 RC Curves 163
6.7.4 Balanced NC Curves 165
6.8 Equivalent Continuous SPL 166
6.9 Sound Exposure Level 167
6.10 Day–Night Equivalent SPL 168
6.11 Percentile SPLs 170
6.12 Evaluation of Aircraft Noise 170
6.12.1 Composite Noise Rating 171
6.12.2 Noise Exposure Forecast 172
6.12.3 Noise and Number Index 172
6.12.4 Equivalent A-Weighted SPL Leq, Day–Night Level Ldn, and Day–Evening–Night Level Lden 172
6.13 Evaluation of Traffic Noise 172
6.13.1 Traffic Noise Index 172
6.13.2 Noise Pollution Level 173
6.13.3 Equivalent SPL 173
6.14 Evaluation of Community Noise 174
6.15 Human Response 175
6.15.1 Sleep Interference 175
6.15.2 Annoyance 176
6.16 Noise Criteria and Noise Regulations 180
6.16.1 Noise Criteria 180
6.17 Human Vibration Criteria 182
6.17.1 Human Comfort in Buildings 182
6.17.2 Effect of Vibration on Buildings 184
References 185
7 Noise and Vibration Transducers, Signal Processing, Analysis, and Measurements 189
7.1 Introduction 189
7.2 Typical Measurement Systems 189
7.3 Transducers 190
7.3.1 Transducer Characteristics 191
7.3.2 Sensitivity 191
7.3.3 Dynamic Range 193
7.3.4 Frequency Response 195
7.4 Noise Measurements 195
7.4.1 Types of Microphones for Noise Measurements 196
7.4.2 Directivity 199
7.4.3 Transducer Calibration 199
7.5 Vibration Measurements 202
7.5.1 Principle of Seismic Mass Transducers 203
7.5.2 Piezoelectric Accelerometers 206
7.5.3 Measurement Difficulties 208
7.5.4 Calibration, Metrology, and Traceability of Shock and Vibration Transducers 211
7.6 Signal Analysis, Data Processing, and Specialized Noise And Vibration Measurements 211
7.6.1 Signal Analysis and Data Processing 211
7.6.2 Sound Level Meters (SLMs) and Dosimeters 211
7.6.3 Sound Power and Sound Intensity 212
7.6.4 Modal Analysis 212
7.6.5 Condition Monitoring 213
7.6.6 Advanced Noise and Vibration Analysis and Measurement Techniques 213
References 214
8 Sound Intensity, Measurements and Determination of Sound Power, Noise Source Identification, and Transmission Loss 217
8.1 Introduction 217
8.2 Historical Developments in the Measurement of Sound Pressure and Sound Intensity 217
8.3 Theoretical Background 221
8.4 Characteristics of Sound Fields 223
8.4.1 Active and Reactive Intensity 223
8.4.2 Plane Progressive Waves 223
8.4.3 Standing Waves 225
8.4.4 Vibrating Piston in a Tube 226
8.5 Active and Reactive Sound Fields 228
8.5.1 The Monopole Source 228
8.5.2 The Dipole Source 230
8.5.3 General Case 230
8.6 Measurement of Sound Intensity 232
8.6.1 The p–p Method 232
8.6.2 The p–u Method 246
8.6.3 The Surface Intensity Method 251
8.7 Applications 253
8.7.1 Sound Power Determination 255
8.7.2 Noise Source Identification 259
8.7.3 Noise Source Identification on a Diesel Engine Using Sound Intensity 259
8.7.4 Measurements of the Transmission Loss of Structures Using Sound Intensity 265
8.8 Comparison Between Sound Power Measurements Using Sound Intensity and Sound Pressure Methods 275
8.8.1 Sound Intensity Method 277
8.8.2 Sound Pressure Method 278
8.9 Standards for Sound Intensity Measurements 280
References 282
9 Principles of Noise and Vibration Control 287
9.1 Introduction 287
9.2 Systematic Approach to Noise Problems 287
9.2.1 Noise and Vibration Source Identification 288
9.2.2 Noise Reduction Techniques 290
9.3 Use of Vibration Isolators 290
9.3.1 Theory of Vibration Isolation 291
9.3.2 Machine Vibration 294
9.3.3 Use of Inertia Blocks 295
9.3.4 Other Considerations 296
9.4 Use of Damping Materials 296
9.4.1 Unconstrained Damping Layer 298
9.4.2 Constrained Damping Layer 299
9.5 Use of Sound Absorption 300
9.5.1 Sound Absorption Coefficient 300
9.5.2 Noise Reduction Coefficient 300
9.5.3 Absorption by Porous Fibrous Materials 301
9.5.4 Panel or Membrane Absorbers 306
9.5.5 Helmholtz Resonator Absorbers 307
9.5.6 Perforated Panel Absorbers 310
9.5.7 Slit Absorbers 312
9.5.8 Suspended Absorbers 314
9.5.9 Acoustical Spray-on Materials 314
9.5.10 Acoustical Plaster 315
9.5.11 Measurement of Sound Absorption Coefficients 316
9.5.12 Optimization of the Reverberation Time 316
9.5.13 Reduction of the Sound Pressure Level in Reverberant Fields 318
9.6 Acoustical Enclosures 319
9.6.1 Reverberant Sound Field Model for Enclosures 319
9.6.2 Machine Enclosure in Free Field 320
9.6.3 Simple Enclosure Design Assuming Diffuse Reverberant Sound Fields 321
9.6.4 Close-Fitting Enclosures 325
9.6.5 Partial Enclosures 327
9.6.6 Other Considerations 328
9.7 Use of Barriers 330
9.7.1 Transmission Loss of Barriers 334
9.7.2 Use of Barriers Indoors 334
9.7.3 Reflections from the Ground 337
9.7.4 Use of Barriers Outdoors 338
9.8 Active Noise and Vibration Control 339
References 344
10 Mufflers and Silencers – Absorbent and Reactive Types 351
10.1 Introduction 351
10.2 Muffler Classification 351
10.3 Definitions of Muffler Performance 352
10.4 Reactive Mufflers 352
10.5 Historical Development of Reactive Muffler Theories 354
10.6 Classical Reactive Muffler Theory 358
10.6.1 Transmission Line Theory 358
10.6.2 TL of Resonators 359
10.6.3 NACA 1192 Study on Reactive Muffler TL 368
10.6.4 Transfer Matrix Theory 371
10.7 Exhaust System Modeling 374
10.7.1 Transmission Loss 374
10.7.2 Insertion Loss 375
10.7.3 Sound Pressure Radiated from Tailpipe 376
10.8 Tail Pipe Radiation Impedance, Source Impedance and Source Strength 377
10.8.1 Tail Pipe Radiation 377
10.8.2 Internal Combustion Engine Impedance and Source Strength 378
10.9 Numerical Modeling of Muffler Acoustical Performance 380
10.9.1 Finite Element Analysis 380
10.9.2 Boundary Element Analysis 388
10.9.3 TL of Concentric Tube Resonators 396
10.10 Reactive Muffler IL 403
10.11 Measurements of Source Impedance 403
10.12 Dissipative Mufflers and Lined Ducts 406
10.13 Historical Development of Dissipative Mufflers and Lined Duct Theories 406
10.14 Parallel-Baffle Mufflers 407
10.14.1 Embleton’s Method [8] 408
10.14.2 Ver’s Method [11, 12, 136] 409
10.14.3 Ingard’s Method [149] 411
10.14.4 Bies and Hansen Method [14] 414
10.14.5 Mechel’s Design Curves [152] 415
10.14.6 Ramakrishnan and Watson Curves [151] 416
10.14.7 Finite Element Approach for Attenuation of Parallel-Baffle Mufflers 418
References 420
11 Noise and Vibration Control of Machines 427
11.1 Introduction 427
11.2 Machine Element Noise and Vibration Sources and Control 427
11.2.1 Gears 427
11.2.2 Bearings 430
11.2.3 Fans and Blowers 433
11.2.4 Metal Cutting 438
11.2.5 Woodworking 439
11.3 Built-up Machines 443
11.3.1 Internal Combustion Engines 443
11.3.2 Electric Motors and Electrical Equipment 444
11.3.3 Compressors 446
11.3.4 Pumps 450
11.4 Noise Due to Fluid Flow 454
11.4.1 Valve-Induced Noise 454
11.4.2 Hydraulic System Noise 456
11.4.3 Furnace and Burner Noise 458
11.5 Noise Control of Industrial Production Machinery 459
11.5.1 Machine Tool Noise, Vibration, and Chatter 459
11.5.2 Sound Power Level for Industrial Machinery 460
References 460
12 Noise and Vibration Control in Buildings 465
12.1 Introduction 465
12.2 Sound Transmission Theory for Single Panels 466
12.2.1 Mass-Law Transmission Loss 466
12.2.2 Random Incidence Transmission Loss 469
12.2.3 The Coincidence Effect 474
12.3 Sound Transmission for Double and Multiple Panels 476
12.3.1 Sound Transmission Through Infinite Double Panels 476
12.3.2 London’s Theory 477
12.3.3 Empirical Approach 480
12.4 Sound and Vibration Transmission and Structural Response Using Statistical Energy Analysis (SEA) 484
12.4.1 Introduction 484
12.4.2 SEA Fundamentals and Assumptions 484
12.4.3 Power Flow Between Coupled Systems 496
12.4.4 Modal Behavior of Panel 496
12.4.5 Use of SEA to Predict Sound Transmission Through Panels or Partitions 497
12.4.6 Design of Enclosures Using SEA 503
12.4.7 Optimization of Enclosure Attenuation 506
12.4.8 SEA Computer Codes 508
12.5 Transmission Through Composite Walls 508
12.6 Effects of Leaks and Flanking Transmission 511
12.7 Sound Transmission Measurement Techniques 514
12.7.1 Laboratory Methods of Measuring Transmission Loss 514
12.7.2 Measurements of Transmission Loss in the Field 519
12.8 Single-Number Ratings for Partitions 520
12.9 Impact Sound Transmission 523
12.9.1 Laboratory and Field Measurements of Impact Transmission 524
12.9.2 Rating of Impact Sound Transmission 526
12.10 Measured Airborne and Impact Sound Transmission (Insulation) Data 527
12.10.1 Gypsum Board Walls 528
12.10.2 Masonry Walls 528
12.10.3 Airborne and Impact Insulation of Floors 530
12.10.4 Doors and Windows 533
12.11 Sound Insulation Requirements 534
12.12 Control of Vibration of Buildings Caused by Strong Wind 541
12.12.1 Wind Excitation of Buildings 542
12.12.2 Structural Vibration Response of Buildings and Towers 544
12.12.3 Methods of Building Structure Vibration Reduction and Control 546
12.12.4 Human Response to Vibration and Acceptability Criteria 548
References 549
13 Design of Air-conditioning Systems for Noise and Vibration Control 557
13.1 Introduction 557
13.2 Interior Noise Level Design Criteria 558
13.3 General Features of a Ventilation System 558
13.3.1 HVAC Systems in Residential Homes 559
13.3.2 HVAC Systems in Large Buildings 559
13.3.3 Correct and Incorrect Installation of HVAC Systems 562
13.3.4 Sources of Noise and Causes of Complaints in HVAC Systems 564
13.4 Fan Noise 565
13.4.1 Types of Fans Used in HVAC Systems 568
13.4.2 Blade passing Frequency (BPF) 569
13.4.3 Fan Efficiency 571
13.4.4 Sound Power and Frequency Content of Fans 573
13.4.5 Sound Power Levels of Fans and Predictions 574
13.4.6 Prediction of Fan Sound Power Level 575
13.4.7 Importance of Proper Installation of Centrifugal Fans 577
13.4.8 Terminal Units (CAV, VAV, and Fan-Powered VAV Boxes) 579
13.5 Space Planning 581
13.6 Mechanical Room Noise and Vibration Control 583
13.6.1 Use of Floating Floors 584
13.6.2 Vibration Control of Equipment 588
13.6.3 Selection of Vibration Isolators 588
13.6.4 Vibration Isolation of Ducts, Pipes, and Wiring 596
13.7 Sound Attenuation in Ventilation Systems 598
13.7.1 Use of Fiberglass in Plenum Chambers, Mufflers, and HVAC Ducts 598
13.7.2 Attenuation of Plenum Chambers 598
13.7.3 Duct Attenuation 603
13.7.4 Sound Attenuators (Silencers) 607
13.7.5 Branches and Power Splits 609
13.7.6 Attenuation Due to End Reflection 610
13.7.7 Attenuation by Miter Bends 613
13.8 Sound Generation in Mechanical Systems 614
13.8.1 Elbow Noise 614
13.8.2 Take-off Noise 617
13.8.3 Grille Noise 618
13.8.4 Diffuser Noise 620
13.8.5 Damper Noise 620
13.9 Radiated Noise 621
13.9.1 Duct-Radiated Noise 623
13.9.2 Sound Breakout and Breakin From Ducts 624
13.9.3 Mixing Box Radiated Noise 627
13.9.4 Radiation From Fan Plenum Walls 628
13.9.5 Overall Sound Pressure Level Prediction 628
References 631
14 Surface Transportation Noise and Vibration Sources and Control 633
14.1 Introduction 633
14.2 Automobile and Truck Noise Sources and Control 633
14.2.1 Power Plant Noise and Its Control 635
14.2.2 Intake and Exhaust Noise and Muffler Design 639
14.2.3 Tire/Road Noise Sources and Control 640
14.2.4 Aerodynamic Noise Sources on Vehicles 642
14.2.5 Gearbox Noise and Vibration 643
14.2.6 Brake Noise Prediction and Control 644
14.3 Interior Road Vehicle Cabin Noise 644
14.3.1 Automobiles and Trucks 644
14.3.2 Off-Road Vehicles 649
14.4 Railroad and Rapid Transit Vehicle Noise and Vibration Sources 650
14.4.1 Wheel–Rail Interaction Noise 650
14.4.2 Interior Rail Vehicle Cabin Noise 651
14.5 Noise And Vibration Control in Ships 654
References 656
15 Aircraft and Airport Transportation Noise Sources and Control 661
15.1 Introduction 661
15.2 Jet Engine Noise Sources and Control 661
15.3 Propeller and Rotor Noise Sources and Control 663
15.4 Helicopter and Rotor Noise 663
15.5 Aircraft Cabin Noise and Vibration and Its Control 666
15.5.1 Passive Noise and Vibration Control 666
15.5.2 Active Noise and Vibration Control 668
15.6 Airport Noise Control 669
15.6.1 Noise Control at the Source 669
15.6.2 Airport-specific Noise Control Measures 670
References 673
16 Community Noise and Vibration Sources 677
16.1 Introduction 677
16.2 Assessment of Community Noise Annoyance 677
16.3 Community Noise and Vibration Sources and Control 680
16.3.1 Traffic Noise Sources 680
16.3.2 Rail System Noise Sources 683
16.3.3 Ground-Borne Vibration Transmission from Road and Rail Systems 683
16.3.4 Aircraft and Airport Noise Prediction and Control 684
16.3.5 Off-road Vehicle and Construction Equipment Exterior Noise Prediction and Control 687
16.3.6 Industrial and Commercial Noise in the Community 688
16.3.7 Construction and Building Site Noise 688
16.4 Environmental Impact Assessment 689
16.5 Environmental Noise and Vibration Attenuation 690
16.5.1 Attenuation Provided by Barriers, Earth Berms, Buildings, and Vegetation 690
16.5.2 Base Isolation of Buildings for Control of Ground-Borne Vibration 692
16.5.3 Noise Control Using Porous Road Surfaces 693
16.6 City Planning for Noise and Vibration Reduction and Soundscape Concepts 694
16.6.1 Community Noise Ordinances 694
16.6.2 Recommendations for Urban Projects 697
16.6.3 Strategic Noise Maps 697
16.6.4 Soundscapes 698
References 699
Glossary 705
Index 737
