a comprehensive
Table of Contents
List of Contributors xi Preface xiii
Foreword xv
1 Overview of Standardization of Energy Efficiency 1
Franco Bua and Angelo Baggini
1.1 Standardization 3
1.1.1 ISO 4
1.1.2 IEC 5
1.1.3 CEN and CENELEC 6
Further Readings 8
2 Cables and Lines 9
Paola Pezzini and Andreas Sumper
2.1 Theory of Heat Transfer 10
2.1.1 Conduction 10
2.1.2 Convection 10
2.1.3 Radiation 11
2.2 Current Rating of Cables Installed in Free Air 12
2.3 Economic Aspects 15
2.4 Calculation of the Current Rating: Total Costs 16
2.4.1 Evaluation of CJ 16
2.5 Determination of Economic Conductor Sizes 18
2.5.1 Economic Current Range for Each Conductor in a Series of Sizes 18
2.5.2 Economic Conductor Size for a Given Load 18
2.6 Summary 19
References 19
3 Power Transformers 21
Roman Targosz, Stefan Fassbinder and Angelo Baggini
3.1 Losses in Transformers 23
3.1.1 No-Load Losses 23
3.1.2 Load Losses 24
3.1.3 Auxiliary Losses 24
3.1.4 Extra Losses due to Harmonics, Unbalance and Reactive Power 25
3.2 Efficiency and Load Factor 30
3.3 Losses and Cooling System 31
3.4 Energy Efficiency Standards and Regulations 32
3.4.1 MEPS 37
3.4.2 Mandatory Labelling 37
3.4.3 Voluntary Programmes 37
3.5 Life Cycle Costing 39
3.5.1 Life Cycle Cost of Transformers 40
3.5.2 Detailed Considerations 44
3.6 Design, Material and Manufacturing 47
3.6.1 Core 47
3.6.2 Windings 52
3.6.3 Other Developments 54
3.7 Case Study – Evaluation TOC of an Industrial Transformer 54
3.7.1 Method 55
3.7.2 Results 56
References 59
Further Readings 59
3.A Annex 60
3.A.1 Selected MEPS 60
4 Building Automation, Control and Management Systems 71
Angelo Baggini and Annalisa Marra
4.1 Automation Functions for Energy Savings 72
4.1.1 Temperature Control 72
4.1.2 Lighting 74
4.1.3 Drives and Motors 74
4.1.4 Technical Alarms and Management 75
4.1.5 Remote Control 76
4.2 Automation Systems 76
4.2.1 KNX Systems 77
4.2.2 Scada Systems 82
4.3 Automation Device Own Consumption 86
4.4 Basic Schemes 86
4.4.1 Heating and Cooling 86
4.4.2 Ventilation and Air Conditioning 95
4.4.3 Lighting 107
4.4.4 Sunscreens 109
4.4.5 Technical Building Management 110
4.4.6 Technical Installations in the Building 111
4.5 The Estimate of Building Energy Performance 113
4.5.1 European Standard EN 15232 113
4.5.2 Comparison of Methods: Detailed Calculations and BAC Factors 115
Further Readings 124
5 Power Quality Phenomena and Indicators 125
Andrei Cziker, Zbigniew Hanzelka and Ireana Wasiak
5.1 RMS Voltage Level 126
5.1.1 Sources 127
5.1.2 Effects on Energy Efficiency 128
5.1.3 Mitigation Methods 130
5.2 Voltage Fluctuations 132
5.2.1 Disturbance Description 132
5.2.2 Sources of Voltage Fluctuations 134
5.2.3 Effects and Cost 135
5.2.4 Mitigation Methods 138
5.3 Voltage and Current Unbalance 138
5.3.1 Disturbance Description 139
5.3.2 Sources 140
5.3.3 Effect and Cost 140
5.3.4 Mitigation Methods 143
5.4 Voltage and Current Distortion 145
5.4.1 Disturbance Description 145
5.4.2 Sources 146
5.4.3 Effects and Cost 147
5.4.4 Mitigation Methods 153
References 162
Further Readings 162
6 On Site Generation and Microgrids 165
Irena Wasiak and Zbigniew Hanzelka
6.1 Technologies of Distributed Energy Resources 166
6.1.1 Energy Sources 166
6.1.2 Energy Storage 170
6.2 Impact of DG on Power Losses in Distribution Networks 175
6.3 Microgrids 178
6.3.1 Concept 178
6.3.2 Energy Storage Applications 180
6.3.3 Management and Control 182
6.3.4 Power Quality and Reliability in Microgrids 184
References 186
Further Readings 187
7 Electric Motors 189
Joris Lemmens and Wim Deprez
7.1 Losses in Electric Motors 190
7.1.1 Power Balance and Energy Efficiency 191
7.1.2 Loss Components Classification 193
7.1.3 Influence Factors 195
7.2 Motor Efficiency Standards 199
7.2.1 Efficiency Classification Standards 199
7.2.2 Efficiency Measurement Standards 200
7.2.3 Future Standard for Variable Speed Drives 207
7.3 High Efficiency Motor Technology 208
7.3.1 Motor Materials 210
7.3.2 Motor Design 218
7.3.3 Motor Manufacturing 224
References 226
8 Lighting 229
Mircea Chindris and Antoni Sudria-Andreu
8.1 Energy and Lighting Systems 230
8.1.1 Energy Consumption in Lighting Systems 230
8.1.2 Energy Efficiency in Lighting Systems 231
8.2 Regulations 233
8.3 Technological Advances in Lighting Systems 234
8.3.1 Efficient Light Sources 234
8.3.2 Efficient Ballasts 239
8.3.3 Efficient Luminaries 241
8.4 Energy Efficiency in Indoor Lighting Systems 242
8.4.1 Policy Actions to Support Energy Efficiency 242
8.4.2 Retrofit or Redesign? 245
8.4.3 Lighting Controls 247
8.4.4 Daylighting 251
8.5 Energy Efficiency in Outdoor Lighting Systems 252
8.5.1 Efficient Lamps and Luminaires 253
8.5.2 Outdoor Lighting Controls 256
8.6 Maintenance of Lighting Systems 259
References 260
Further Readings 261
9 Electrical Drives and Power Electronics 263
Daniel Montesinos-Miracle, Joan Bergas-Jan´e and Edris Pouresmaeil
9.1 Control Methods for Induction Motors and PMSM 266
9.1.1 V/f Control 266
9.1.2 Vector Control 271
9.1.3 DTC 272
9.2 Energy Optimal Control Methods 274
9.2.1 Converter Losses 275
9.2.2 Motor Losses 276
9.2.3 Energy Optimal Control Strategies 276
9.3 Topology of the Variable Speed Drive 276
9.3.1 Input Stage 277
9.3.2 DC Bus 278
9.3.3 The Inverter 279
9.4 New Trends on Power Semiconductors 280
9.4.1 Modulation Techniques 281
9.4.2 Review of Different Modulation Methods 283
References 291
Further Readings 193
10 Industrial Heating Processes 295
Mircea Chindris and Andreas Sumper
10.1 General Aspects Regarding Electroheating in Industry 298
10.2 Main Electroheating Technologies 302
10.2.1 Resistance Heating 302
10.2.2 Infrared Heating 309
10.2.3 Induction Heating 314
10.2.4 Dielectric Heating 318
10.2.5 Arc Furnaces 325
10.3 Specific Aspects Regarding the Increase of Energy Efficiency in Industrial Heating Processes 326
10.3.1 Replacement of Traditional Heating Technologies 327
10.3.2 Selection of the Most Suitable Electrotechnology 329
10.3.3 Increasing the Efficiency of the Existing Electroheating Equipment 330
References 333
Further Readings 334
11 Heat, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) 335
Roberto Villafafila-Robles and Jaume Salom
11.1 Basic Concepts 336
11.2 Environmental Thermal Comfort 338
11.3 HVAC Systems 342
11.3.1 Energy Conversion 344
11.3.2 Energy Balance 346
11.3.3 Energy Efficiency 347
11.4 Energy Measures in HVAC Systems 348
11.4.1 Final Service 348
11.4.2 Passive Methods 348
11.4.3 Conversion Device 351
11.4.4 Energy Sources 353
References 354
Further Readings 355
12 Data Centres 357
Angelo Baggini and Franco Bua
12.1 Standards 357
12.2 Consumption Profile 358
12.2.1 Energy Performance Index 360
12.3 IT Infrastructure and Equipment 360
12.3.1 Blade Server 360
12.3.2 Storage 361
12.3.3 Network Equipment 361
12.3.4 Consolidation 362
12.3.5 Virtualization 362
12.3.6 Software 363
12.4 Facility Infrastructure 363
12.4.1 Electrical Infrastructure 363
12.4.2 HVAC Infrastructure 365
12.5 DG and CHP for Data Centres 368
12.6 Organizing for Energy Efficiency 369
Further Readings 370
13 Reactive Power Compensation 371
|Zbigniew Hanzelka, Waldemar Szpyra, Andrei Cziker and Krzysztof Piatek
13.1 Reactive Power Compensation in an Electric Utility Network 373
13.1.1 Economic Efficiency of Reactive Power Compensation 377
13.2 Reactive Power Compensation in an Industrial Network 380
13.2.1 Linear Loads 381
13.2.2 Group Compensation 383
13.2.3 Nonlinear Loads 387
13.3 Var Compensation 391
13.3.1 A Synchronous Condenser 391
13.3.2 Capacitor Banks 392
13.3.3 Power Electronic Compensators/Stabilizers 393
References 398
Further Readings 398
Index 399
