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Table of Contents
Part I General Aspects of Bridge Design
Chapter 1 Introduction To Bridge Engineering 3
1.1 A Bridge Is the Key Element in a Transportation System 3
1.2 Bridge Engineering in the United States 3
1.2.1 Stone Arch Bridges 3
1.2.2 Wooden Bridges 4
1.2.3 Metal Truss Bridges 6
1.2.4 Suspension Bridges 8
1.2.5 Metal Arch Bridges 10
1.2.6 Reinforced Concrete Bridges 12
1.2.7 Girder Bridges 13
1.2.8 Closing Remarks 14
1.3 Bridge Engineer—Planner, Architect, Designer, Constructor, and Facility Manager 15
References 15
Problems 15
Chapter 2 Specifications and Bridge Failures 17
2.1 Bridge Specifications 17
2.2 Implication of Bridge Failures on Practice 18
2.2.1 Silver Bridge, Point Pleasant, West Virginia, December 15, 1967 18
2.2.2 I-5 and I-210 Interchange, San Fernando, California, February 9, 1971 19
2.2.3 Sunshine Skyway, Tampa Bay, Florida, May 9, 1980 21
2.2.4 Mianus River Bridge, Greenwich, Connecticut, June 28, 1983 22
2.2.5 Schoharie Creek Bridge, Amsterdam, New York, April 5, 1987 24
2.2.6 Cypress Viaduct, Loma Prieta Earthquake, October 17, 1989 25
2.2.7 I-35W Bridge, Minneapolis, Minnesota, August 1, 2007 26
2.2.8 Failures during Construction 30
2.2.9 Failures Continue and Current Data 30
2.2.10 Evolving Bridge Engineering Practice 51
References 51
Problems 51
Chapter 3 Bridge Aesthetics 53
3.1 Introduction 53
3.2 Nature of the Structural Design Process 53
3.2.1 Description and Justification 53
3.2.2 Public and Personal Knowledge 54
3.2.3 Regulation 54
3.2.4 Design Process 55
3.3 Aesthetics in Bridge Design 56
3.3.1 Definition of Aesthetics 56
3.3.2 Qualities of Aesthetic Design 57
3.3.3 Practical Guidelines for Medium- and Short-Span Bridges 67
3.3.4 Computer Modeling 75
3.3.5 Web References 79
3.3.6 Closing Remarks on Aesthetics 79
References 79
Problems 80
Chapter 4 Bridge Types and Selection 81
4.1 Main Structure below the Deck Line 81
4.2 Main Structure above the Deck Line 81
4.3 Main Structure Coincides with the Deck Line 84
4.4 Closing Remarks on Bridge Types 87
4.5 Selection of Bridge Type 87
4.5.1 Factors To Be Considered 87
4.5.2 Bridge Types Used for Different Span Lengths 89
4.5.3 Closing Remarks 92
References 93
Problems 93
Chapter 5 Design Limit States 95
5.1 Introduction 95
5.2 Development of Design Procedures 95
5.2.1 Allowable Stress Design 95
5.2.2 Variability of Loads 96
5.2.3 Shortcomings of Allowable Stress Design 96
5.2.4 Load and Resistance Factor Design 97
5.3 Design Limit States 97
5.3.1 General 97
5.3.2 Service Limit State 99
5.3.3 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State 99
5.3.4 Strength Limit State 100
5.3.5 Extreme Event Limit State 101
5.3.6 Construction Limit States 102
5.4 Closing Remarks 102
References 102
Problems 103
Chapter 6 Principles of Probabilistic Design 105
6.1 Introduction 105
6.1.1 Frequency Distribution and Mean Value 105
6.1.2 Standard Deviation 105
6.1.3 Probability Density Functions 106
6.1.4 Bias Factor 107
6.1.5 Coefficient of Variation 107
6.1.6 Probability of Failure 108
6.1.7 Safety Index 𝛽 109
6.2 Calibration of LRFD Code 111
6.2.1 Overview of the Calibration Process 111
6.2.2 Calibration Using Reliability Theory 111
6.2.3 Calibration of Fitting with ASD 115
6.3 Closing Remarks 116
References 116
Problems 116
Chapter 7 Geometric Design Considerations 119
7.1 Introduction to Geometric Roadway Considerations 119
7.2 Roadway Widths 119
7.3 Vertical Clearances 120
7.4 Interchanges 120
References 121
Problem 121
Part II Loads and Analysis
Chapter 8 Loads 125
8.1 Introduction 125
8.2 Gravity Loads 125
8.2.1 Permanent Loads 125
8.2.2 Transient Loads 126
8.3 Lateral Loads 138
8.3.1 Fluid Forces 138
8.3.2 Seismic Loads 141
8.3.3 Ice Forces 145
8.4 Forces Due to Deformations 150
8.4.1 Temperature 150
8.4.2 Creep and Shrinkage 152
8.4.3 Settlement 152
8.5 Collision Loads 152
8.5.1 Vessel Collision 152
8.5.2 Rail Collision 152
8.5.3 Vehicle Collision 152
8.6 Blast Loading 152
8.7 Summary 153
References 153
Problems 154
Chapter 9 Influence Functions and Girder-Line Analysis 155
9.1 Introduction 155
9.2 Definition 155
9.3 Statically Determinate Beams 156
9.3.1 Concentrated Loads 156
9.3.2 Uniform Loads 158
9.4 Muller–Breslau Principle 159
9.4.1 Betti’s Theorem 159
9.4.2 Theory of Muller–Breslau Principle 160
9.4.3 Qualitative Influence Functions 161
9.5 Statically Indeterminate Beams 161
9.5.1 Integration of Influence Functions 164
9.5.2 Relationship between Influence Functions 164
9.5.3 Muller–Breslau Principle for End Moments 167
9.5.4 Automation by Matrix Structural Analysis 168
9.6 Normalized Influence Functions 170
9.7 AASHTO Vehicle Loads 170
9.8 Influence Surfaces 178
9.9 Summary 179
References 180
Problems 180
Chapter 10 System Analysis—Introduction 183
10.1 Introduction 183
10.2 Safety of Methods 185
10.2.1 Equilibrium for Safe Design 185
10.2.2 Stress Reversal and Residual Stress 187
10.2.3 Repetitive Overloads 188
10.2.4 Fatigue and Serviceability 191
10.3 Summary 192
References 192
Problem 192
Chapter 11 System Analysis—Gravity Loads 193
11.1 Slab Girder Bridges 193
11.2 Slab Bridges 215
11.3 Slabs in Slab Girder Bridges 219
11.4 Box Girder Bridges 228
11.5 Closing Remarks 234
References 234
Problems 235
Chapter 12 System Analysis—Lateral, Temperature, Shrinkage, and Prestress Loads 237
12.1 Lateral Load Analysis 237
12.1.1 Wind Loads 237
12.1.2 Seismic Load Analysis 238
12.2 Temperature, Shrinkage, and Prestress 240
12.2.1 General 240
12.2.2 Prestressing 241
12.2.3 Temperature Effects 241
12.2.4 Shrinkage and Creep 244
12.3 Closing Remarks 244
References 245
Part III Concrete Bridges
Chapter 13 Reinforced Concrete Material Response and Properties 249
13.1 Introduction 249
13.2 Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Material Response 249
13.3 Constituents of Fresh Concrete 250
13.4 Properties of Hardened Concrete 252
13.4.1 Short-Term Properties of Concrete 252
13.4.2 Long-Term Properties of Concrete 257
13.5 Properties of Steel Reinforcement 261
13.5.1 Nonprestressed Steel Reinforcement 262
13.5.2 Prestressing Steel 263
References 265
Problems 266
Chapter 14 Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Members 267
14.1 Limit States 267
14.1.1 Service Limit State 267
14.1.2 Fatigue Limit State 270
14.1.3 Strength Limit State 273
14.1.4 Extreme Event Limit State 274
14.2 Flexural Strength of Reinforced Concrete Members 275
14.2.1 Depth to Neutral Axis for Beams with Bonded Tendons 275
14.2.2 Depth to Neutral Axis for Beams with Unbonded Tendons 277
14.2.3 Nominal Flexural Strength 278
14.2.4 Ductility, Maximum Tensile Reinforcement, and Resistance Factor Adjustment 280
14.2.5 Minimum Tensile Reinforcement 283
14.2.6 Loss of Prestress 283
14.3 Shear Strength of Reinforced Concrete Members 288
14.3.1 Variable-Angle Truss Model 289
14.3.2 Modified Compression Field Theory 290
14.3.3 Shear Design Using Modified Compression Field Theory 297
14.4 Closing Remarks 305
References 305
Problems 306
Chapter 15 Concrete Barrier Strength and Deck Design 307
15.1 Concrete Barrier Strength 307
15.1.1 Strength of Uniform Thickness Barrier Wall 307
15.1.2 Strength of Variable Thickness Barrier Wall 309
15.1.3 Crash Testing of Barriers 309
15.2 Concrete Deck Design 309
References 326
Problems 326
Chapter 16 Concrete Design Examples 327
16.1 Solid Slab Bridge Design 327
16.2 T-Beam Bridge Design 335
16.3 Prestressed Girder Bridge 353
References 371
Part IV Steel Bridges
Chapter 17 Steel Bridges 375
17.1 Introduction 375
17.2 Material Properties 375
17.2.1 Steelmaking Process: Traditional 375
17.2.2 Steelmaking Process: Mini Mills 376
17.2.3 Steelmaking Process: Environmental Considerations 376
17.2.4 Production of Finished Products 377
17.2.5 Residual Stresses 377
17.2.6 Heat Treatments 378
17.2.7 Classification of Structural Steels 378
17.2.8 Effects of Repeated Stress (Fatigue) 383
17.2.9 Brittle Fracture Considerations 384
17.3 Summary 386
References 386
Problem 386
Chapter 18 Limit States and General Requirements 387
18.1 Limit States 387
18.1.1 Service Limit State 387
18.1.2 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State 388
18.1.3 Strength Limit States 399
18.1.4 Extreme Event Limit State 399
18.2 General Design Requirements 399
18.2.1 Effective Length of Span 400
18.2.2 Dead-Load Camber 400
18.2.3 Minimum Thickness of Steel 400
18.2.4 Diaphragms and Cross Frames 400
18.2.5 Lateral Bracing 400
References 401
Problems 401
Chapter 19 Steel Component Resistance 403
19.1 Tensile Members 403
19.1.1 Types of Connections 403
19.1.2 Tensile Resistance—Specifications 403
19.1.3 Strength of Connections for Tension Members 406
19.2 Compression Members 406
19.2.1 Column Stability—Behavior 406
19.2.2 Inelastic Buckling—Behavior 408
19.2.3 Compressive Resistance—Specifications 409
19.2.4 Connections for Compression Members 412
19.3 I-Sections in Flexure 412
19.3.1 General 412
19.3.2 Yield Moment and Plastic Moment 415
19.3.3 Stability Related to Flexural Resistance 421
19.3.4 Limit States 432
19.3.5 Summary of I-Sections in Flexure 434
19.3.6 Closing Remarks on I-Sections in Flexure 434
19.4 Shear Resistance of I-Sections 438
19.4.1 Beam Action Shear Resistance 438
19.4.2 Tension Field Action Shear Resistance 440
19.4.3 Combined Shear Resistance 442
19.4.4 Shear Resistance of Unstiffened Webs 443
19.5 Shear Connectors 444
19.5.1 Fatigue Limit State for Stud Connectors 444
19.5.2 Strength Limit State for Stud Connectors 445
19.6 Stiffeners 449
19.6.1 Transverse Intermediate Stiffeners 449
19.6.2 Bearing Stiffeners 451
References 453
Problems 453
Chapter 20 Steel Design Examples 455
20.1 Noncomposite Rolled Steel Beam Bridge 455
20.2 Composite Rolled Steel Beam Bridge 465
20.3 Multiple-Span Composite Steel Plate Girder Beam Bridge 473
20.3.1 Problem Statement Example 20.3 473
References 509
Appendix A Influence Functions For Deck Analysis 511
Appendix B Transverse Deck Moments Per AASHTO Appendix A4 513
Appendix C Metal Reinforcement Information 515
Appendix D Refined Estimate of Time-Dependent Losses 517
References 522
Appendix E NCHRP 12-33 Project Team 523
Task Groups 523
Appendix F Live-Load Distribution—Rigid Method 525
Index 527
