Description
Book SynopsisTable of Contents1 Organization of the Human Body 1
1.1 Anatomy and Physiology Defined 2
1.2 Levels of Organization and Body Systems 2
1.3 Life Processes 6
1.4 Homeostasis: Maintaining Limits 8
Control of Homeostasis: Feedback Systems 8
Homeostasis and Good Health 9
1.5 Aging and Homeostasis 12
1.6 Anatomical Terms 12
Names of Body Regions 12
Directional Terms 12
Exhibit 1.1 Directional Terms 14
Planes and Sections 16
1.7 Body Cavities 17
Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants 18
1.8 Medical Imaging 20
Key Medical Terms Associated with the Organization of the Human Body 24
2 Introductory Chemistry 28
2.1 Introduction to Chemistry 29
Chemical Elements and Atoms 29
Ions, Molecules, and Compounds 30
Chemical Bonds 31
Chemical Reactions 34
2.2 Chemical Compounds and Life Processes 35
Inorganic Compounds 35
Organic Compounds 36
Carbohydrates 36
Lipids 38
Proteins 41
Nucleic Acids 43
Adenosine Triphosphate 43
3 Cells 47
3.1 A Generalized View of the Cell 48
3.2 Plasma Membrane 49
3.3 Transport Across the Plasma Membrane 50
Passive Processes 51 Active Processes 54
3.4 Cytoplasm 57
Cytosol 57
Organelles 57
3.5 Nucleus 63
3.6 Gene Action: Protein Synthesis 64
Transcription 66
Translation 66
3.7 Somatic Cell Division 68
Interphase 68
Mitotic Phase 68
3.8 Cancer 70
Growth and Spread of Cancer 70
Causes of Cancer 70
Carcinogenesis: A Multistep Process 71
Treatment of Cancer 71
3.9 Aging and Cells 72
Key Medical Terms Associated with Cells 72
4 Tissues 77
4.1 Types of Tissues 78
4.2 Cell Junctions 78
4.3 Epithelial Tissue 79
General Features of Epithelial Tissue 80
Covering and Lining Epithelium 80
Glandular Epithelium 88
4.4 Connective Tissue 89
General Features of Connective Tissue 90
Connective Tissue Cells 90
Connective Tissue Extracellular Matrix 91
Classification of Connective Tissues 92
Types of Mature Connective Tissue 92
Connective Tissues: Diverse and Dynamic 100
4.5 Membranes 101
Mucous Membranes 101
Serous Membranes 101
Synovial Membranes 101
4.6 Musular Tissue 102
4.7 Nervous Tissue 104
4.8 Tissue Repair: Restoring Homeostasis 105
4.9 Aging and Tissues 106
Excess Adiposity 106
Key Medical Terms Associated with Tissues 106
5 The Integumentary System 111
5.1 Structure of the Skin 112
Epidermis 113
Keratinization and Growth of the Epidermis 116
Dermis 116
Skin Color 117
5.2 Accessory Structures of the Skin 118
Hair 118
Skin Glands 121
Nails 122
5.3 Types of Skin 123
5.4 Functions of the Skin 124
5.5 Maintaining Homeostasis: Skin Wound Healing 125
Epidermal Wound Healing 125
Dermal Wound Healing 125
5.6 Skin Conditions Important to Therapists 127
Skin Cancer 127
Burns 128
Pressure Ulcers 129
5.7 Aging and the Integumentary System 130
Key Medical Terms Associated with the Integumentary System 130
Exhibit 5.1 The Integumentary System and Homeostasis 131
6 Bone Tissue 135
6.1 Functions of Bone and the Skeletal System 136
6.2 Structure of Bone 136
6.3 Histology of Bone Tissue 138
Compact Bone Tissue 139
Spongy Bone Tissue 139
6.4 Blood and Nerve Supply of Bone 141
6.5 Bone Formation 142
Intramembranous Ossification 142
Endochondral Ossification 142
6.6 Bone Growth 145
Growth in Length 145
Growth in Thickness 146
6.7 Bones and Homeostasis 147
Bone Remodeling 147
Factors Affecting Bone Growth and Bone Remodeling 148
Fracture and Repair of Bone 148
Bone’s Role in Calcium Homeostasis 151
6.8 Aging and Bone Tissue 152
Key Medical Terms Associated with Bone Tissue 154
7 The Skeletal System: The Axial Skeleton 159
7.1 Divisions of the Skeletal System 160
7.2 Types of Bones 160
7.3 Bone Surface Markings 162
7.4 Skull 162
General Features and Functions 163
Cranial Bones 164
Facial Bones 170
Nasal Septum 173
Orbits 174
Foramina 174
Unique Features of the Skull 174
7.5 Hyoid Bone 177
7.6 Vertebral Column 177
Normal Curves of the Vertebral Column 179
Intervertebral Discs 179
Parts of a Typical Vertebra 179
Regions of the Vertebral Column 180
7.7 Thorax 186
Sternum 186
Ribs 186
7.8 Disorders of the Axial Skeleton 189
Abnormal Curves of the Vertebral Column 189
Spina Bifida 190
Key Medical Terms Associated with Axial Skeleton 191
8 The Skeletal System: The Appendicular Skeleton 195
8.1 Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle 196
Clavicle 196
Scapula 197
8.2 Upper Limb (Extremity) 199
Humerus 199
Ulna and Radius 201
Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges 202
8.3 Pelvic (Hip) Girdle 205
Ilium 206
Ischium 206
Pubis 207
False and True Pelves 207
8.4 Comparison of Female and Male Pelves 209
8.5 Comparison of Pectoral and Pelvic Girdles 210
8.6 Lower Limb (Extremity) 211
Femur 211
Patella 213
Tibia and Fibula 214
Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges 215
Arches of the Foot 217
Exhibit 8.1 The Skeletal System and Homeostasis 218
Key Medical Terms Associated with Appendicular Skeleton 219
9 Joints 221
9.1 Joint Classifications 222
9.2 Fibrous Joints 222
Sutures 222
Syndesmoses 224
Interosseous Membranes 224
9.3 Cartilaginous Joints 224
Synchondroses 224
Symphyses 224
9.4 Synovial Joints 225
Structure of Synovial Joints 225
Bursae and Tendon Sheaths 227
Types of Synovial Joints 227
9.5 Types of Movements at Synovial Joints 230
Gliding 230
Angular Movements 230
Rotation 233
Special Movements 234
9.6 Selected Joints of the Body 236
Exhibit 9.1 Temporomandibular Joint 238
Exhibit 9.2 Shoulder Joint 240
Exhibit 9.3 Elbow Joint 243
Exhibit 9.4 Hip Joint 244
Exhibit 9.5 Knee Joint 246
Exhibit 9.6 Ankle Joint 249
9.7 Factors Affecting Contact and Range of Motion at Synovial Joints 251
9.8 Arthroplasty 252
9.9 Aging and Joints 253
Key Medical Terms Associated with Joints 253
10 Muscular Tissue 257
10.1 Overview of Muscular Tissue 258
Types of Muscular Tissue 258
Functions of Muscular Tissue 258
Properties of Muscular Tissue 259
10.2 Skeletal Muscle Tissue 259
Connective Tissue Components 259
Nerve and Blood Supply 261
Histology 261
10.3 Contraction and Relaxation of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 263
Sliding Filament Mechanism 263
Neuromuscular Junction 263
Physiology of Contraction 264
Relaxation 266
Muscle Tone 268
10.4 Metabolism of Skeletal Muscle Tissue 268
Energy for Contraction 268
Muscle Fatigue 268
Oxygen Consumption after Exercise 270
10.5 Control of Muscle Tension 270
Twitch Contraction 270
Frequency of Stimulation 271
Motor Unit Recruitment 271
Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 271
Isometric and Isotonic Contractions 272
10.6 Muscle Spasms 273
10.7 Exercise and Skeletal Muscle Tissue 277
Effective Stretching 277
Strength Training 277
10.8 Cardiac Muscle Tissue 277
10.9 Smooth Muscle Tissue 278
10.10 Aging and Muscular Tissue 279
Key Medical Terms Associated with Muscular Tissue 280
11 The Muscular System: The Muscles of the Head and Neck 284
11.1 How Skeletal Muscles Produce Movement 285
Muscle Attachment Sites: Origin and Insertion 285
Lever Systems and Leverage 285 Effects of Fascicle
Arrangement 288 Coordination within Muscle Groups 288
11.2 How Skeletal Muscles Are Named 289
11.3 Principal Skeletal Muscles of the Head and Neck 289
Exhibit 11.1 Muscles of Facial Expression 294
Exhibit 11.2 Muscles that Move the Eyeballs and Upper Eyelids (Extrinsic Eye Muscles) 300
Exhibit 11.3 Muscles that Move the Mandible and Assist in Mastication (Chewing) and Speech 302
Exhibit 11.4 Muscles of the Anterior Neck that Assist in Deglutition (Swallowing) and Speech 304
Exhibit 11.5 Muscles of the Anterior Neck that Assist in Elevating the Ribs or Flexing the Neck and Head 307
Exhibit 11.6 Muscles of the Lateral Neck that Move the Head 310
12 The Muscular System: The Muscles of the Torso 316
Exhibit 12.1 Muscles of the Abdoman that Act on the Abdominal Wall 317
Surface Features of the Abdomen and Pelvis 320
Exhibit 12.2 Muscles of the Thorax Used in Breathing 324
Exhibit 12.3 Muscles of the Pelvic Diaphragm and Perineum that Support the Pelvic Viscera 325
Exhibit 12.4 Muscles of the Neck and Back that Act on the Posterior Head, Posterior Neck, Back, and Vertebral Column 328
Suboccipital Muscles 332
13 The Muscular System: The Muscles of the Upper Limb 336
Exhibit 13.1 Muscles of the Thorax that Move the Pectoral Girdle 337
Movements of the Scapula 340
Exhibit 13.2 Muscles of the Thorax and Shoulder that Move the Humerus 341
Surface Features of the Shoulder 341
Surface Features of the Armpit 341
Surface Features of the Back 346
Exhibit 13.3 Muscles of the Arm that Move the Radius and Ulna 347
Surface Features of the Arm and Elbow 352
Exhibit 13.4 Muscles of the Forearm that Move the Wrist, Hand, and Digits 354
Exhibit 13.5 Muscles of the Palm that Move the Digits–Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand 362
Surface Features of the Hand 366
14 The Muscular System: The Muscles of the Lower Limb 369
14.1 Introduction to the Muscles of the Lower Limb (Extremity) 370
Exhibit 14.1 Muscles of the Gluteal Region that Move the Femur 371
Surface Features of the Buttock 378
Exhibit 14.2 Muscles of the Thigh that Move on the Femur, Tibia, and Fibula 380
Surface Features of the Thigh and Knee 383
Exhibit 14.3 Muscles of the Leg that Move the Foot and Toes 386
Surface Features of the Leg, Ankle, and Foot 391
Exhibit 14.4 Intrinsic Muscles of the Foot that Move the Toes 393
14.2 Muscle Interactions 398
The Interconnectedness of the Whole Body 398
Posture and Interactions between Muscles 398
Exhibit 14.5 Contributions of the Muscular System to Homeostasis 400
15 Nervous Tissue 403
15.1 Overview of the Nervous System 404
Structures of the Nervous System 404
Functions of the Nervous System 404
Organization of the Nervous System 405
15.2 Histology of Nervous Tissue 407
Neurons 407
Myelination 409
Gray and White Matter 411
Neuroglia 411
15.3 Electrical Signals in Neurons 413
Action Potentials 413
Conduction of Nerve Impulses 417
Effect of Axon Diameter 418
15.4 Synaptic Transmission 418
Events at a Synapse 418
Neurotransmitters 420
15.5 Regeneration and Repair of Nervous Tissue 421
Neurogenesis in the CNS 421
Damage and Repair in the PNS 421
Key Medical Terms Associated with Nervous Tissue 422
16 The Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves 426
16.1 Spinal Cord Anatomy 427
Protective Structures 427
External Anatomy of the Spinal Cord 427
Internal Anatomy of the Spinal Cord 429
16.2 Spinal Nerves 430
Connective Tissue Coverings of Spinal Nerves 432
Distribution of Spinal Nerves 433
Exhibit 16.1 Cervical Plexus 434
Exhibit 16.2 Brachial Plexus 436
Exhibit 16.3 Lumbar Plexus 440
Exhibit 16.4 Sacral and Coccygeal Plexuses 442
Dermatomes 444
16.3 Spinal Cord Physiology 444
Sensory and Motor Tracts 445 Reflexes and Reflex Arcs 449
Reflexes and Diagnosis 457
16.4 Traumatic Injuries of the Spinal Cord 458
Key Medical Terms Associated with the Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves 458
17 The Brain and Cranial Nerves 463
17.1 The Brain 464
Major Parts and Protective Coverings 464
Brain Blood Supply and the Blood-Brain Barrier 464
Cerebrospinal Fluid 464
Brain Stem 468
Diencephalon 469
Cerebellum 471
Cerebrum 471
Hemispheric Lateralization 476
Memory 476
Electroencephalogram (EEG) 476
17.2 Cranial Nerves 477
17.3 Aging and the Nervous System 479
Key Medical Terms Associated with the Brain 479
18 The Autonomic Nervous System 483
18.1 Introduction to the Autonomic Nervous System 484
18.2 Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems 484
18.3 Structure of the Autonomic Nervous System 486
Organization of the Sympathetic Division 486
Organization of the Parasympathetic Division 488
18.4 Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System 491
ANS Neurotransmitters 491
Activities of the ANS 491
18.5 Integration and Control of Autonomic Functions 492
Autonomic Reflexes 492
Autonomic Control by Higher Centers 494
Key Medical Terms Associated with the Autonomic Nervous System 494
19 Somatic and Special Senses 498
19.1 Overview of Sensations 499
Definition of Sensation 499
Characteristics of Sensations 499
Types of Sensory Receptors 499
19.2 Somatic Senses 500
Tactile Sensations 500
Thermal Sensations 501
Pain Sensations 502
Proprioceptive Sensations 503
19.3 Special Senses and Olfaction: Sense of Smell 504
Structure of the Olfactory Epithelium 504
Stimulation of Olfactory Receptors 505
The Olfactory Pathway 505
19.4 Gustation: Sense of Taste 506
Structure of Taste Buds 506
Stimulation of Gustatory Receptors 506
The Gustatory Pathway 506
19.5 Vision 507
Accessory Structures of the Eye 507
Layers of the Eyeball 509
Interior of the Eyeball 511
Image Formation and Binocular Vision 512
Stimulation of Photoreceptors 514
The Visual Pathway 514
19.6 Hearing and Equilibrium 515
Anatomy of the Ear 515
Physiology of Hearing 518
Auditory Pathway 519
Deafness 519
Physiology of Equilibrium 519
Equilibrium Pathways 519
Reflexology via the Ear 519
19.7 Aging and the Special Senses 521
Key Medical Terms Associated with Somatic and Special Senses 522
Exhibit 19.1 Contributions of the Nervous System to Homeostasis 523
20 The Endocrine System 527
20.1 Endocrine Glands 528
20.2 Hormone Action 528
Target Cells and Hormone Receptors 528
Chemistry of Hormones 528
Mechanisms of Hormone Action 528
Control of Hormone Secretions 528
20.3 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 530
Anterior Pituitary Hormones 531
Posterior Pituitary Hormones 533
20.4 Thyroid Gland 535
Actions of Thyroid Hormones 535
Control of Thyroid Hormone
Secretion 536 Calcitonin 537
20.5 Parathyroid Glands 538
20.6 Pancreatic Islets 539
Actions of Glucagon and Insulin 540
20.7 Adrenal Glands 542
Adrenal Cortex Hormones 543
Adrenal Medulla Hormones 545
20.8 Ovaries and Testes 545
20.9 Pineal Gland 545
20.10 Other Hormones 546
Hormones from Other Endocrine Cells 546
Prostaglandins and Leukotrienes 546
20.11 The Stress Response 547
20.12 Aging and the Endocrine System 547
Key Medical Terms Associated with the Endocrine System 548
Exhibit 20.1 Contributions of the Endocrine System to Homeostasis 549
21 The Cardiovascular System: The Blood 553
21.1 Functions of Blood 554
21.2 Components of Whole Blood 554
Blood Plasma 554
Formed Elements 554
21.3 Hemostasis 563
Vascular Spasm 564
Platelet Plug Formation 564
Blood Clotting 564
Hemostatic Control Mechanisms 566
Clotting in Blood Vessels 566
21.4 Blood Groups and Blood Types 566
ABO Blood Group 567
Rh Blood Group 567
Transfusions 568
Key Medical Terms Associated with Blood 568
22 The Cardiovascular System: The Heart 571
22.1 Structure and Organization of the Heart 572
Location and Coverings of the Heart 572
Heart Wall 575 Chambers of the Heart 575
Great Vessels of the Heart 577
Valves of the Heart 577
22.2 Blood Flow and Blood Supply of the Heart 579
Blood Flow through the Heart 579
Blood Supply of the Heart 579
Myocardial Ischemia and Infarction 580
22.3 Conduction System of the Heart 581
22.4 Electrocardiogram 583
Arrhythmias 583
22.5 The Cardiac Cycle 584
Pressure and Volume Changes during the Cardiac Cycle 584
Heart Sounds 586
22.6 Cardiac Output 586
Regulation of Stroke Volume 586 Regulation of Heart Rate 589
22.7 Exercise and the Heart 590
Key Medical Terms Associated with the Heart 590
23 The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels and Circulation 594
23.1 Blood Vessel Structure and Function 595
Arteries and Arterioles 595
Capillaries 595
Venules and Veins 597
23.2 Blood Flow Through Blood Vessels 599
Blood Pressure 599
Resistance 600
Regulation of Blood Pressure and Blood Flow 600
23.3 Checking Circulation 603
Pulse 603
Measurement of Blood Pressure 603
23.4 Circulatory Routes 603
Systemic Circulation 603
Pulmonary Circulation 605
Exhibit 23.1 The Aorta and Its Branches 606
Exhibit 23.2 The Arch of the Aorta 608
Exhibit 23.3 Arteries of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs 610
Exhibit 23.4 Veins of the Systemic Circulation 612
Exhibit 23.5 Veins of the Head and Neck 614
Exhibit 23.6 Veins of the Upper Limbs 615
Exhibit 23.7 Veins of the Lower Limbs 617
Hepatic Portal Circulation 619
Fetal Circulation 620
23.5 Aging and the Cardiovascular System 620
Exhibit 23.8 Contributions of the Cardiovascular System to Homeostasis 622
Key Medical Terms Associated with Blood Vessels 623
24 The Lymphatic System and Immunity 627
24.1 Overview of Immunity 628
24.2 Lymphatic System Structure and Function 628
Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Circulation 628
Lymphatic Organs and Tissues 631
24.3 Innate Immunity 634
First Line of Defense: Skin and Mucous Membranes 634
Second Line of Defense: Internal Defenses 634
24.4 Adaptive Immunity 636
Maturation of T cells and B cells 637
Types of Adaptive Immune Responses 637
Antigens and Antibodies 637
Processing and Presenting Antigens 638
T Cells and Cell-Mediated Immunity 639
B Cells and Antibody-Mediated Immunity 642
Immunological Memory 643
24.5 Aging and the Immune System 645
Exhibit 24.5 Contributions of the Lymphatic System and Immunity to Homeostasis 646
Key Medical Terms Associated with the Lymphatic System 647
25 The Respiratory System 651
25.1 Overview of the Respiratory System 652
25.2 Organs of the Respiratory System 653
Nose 653
Pharynx 654
Larynx 654
Trachea 656
Bronchi and Bronchioles 656
Lungs 657
25.3 Pulmonary Ventilation 660
Muscles of Inhalation and Exhalation 661
Pressure Changes During Ventilation 662
Lung Volumes and Capacities 662
Breathing Patterns and Modified Respiratory Movements 664
25.4 Exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide 664
External Respiration: Pulmonary Gas Exchange 665
Internal Respiration: Systemic Gas Exchange 665
25.5 Transport of Respiratory Gases 667
Oxygen Transport 667
Dioxide Transport 667
25.6 Control of Respiration 667
Respiratory Center 668
Regulation of the Respiratory Center 669
25.7 Exercise and the Respiratory System 671
25.8 Aging and the Respiratory System 671
Exhibit 25.1 Contributions of the Respiratory System to Homeostasis 672
Key Medical Terms Associated with the Respiratory System 673
26 The Digestive System 677
26.1 Overview of the Digestive System 678
26.2 Layers of the GI Tract and the Peritoneum 679
26.3 Mouth 681
Tongue 681
Salivary Glands 682
Teeth 682
Digestion in the Mouth 683
26.4 Pharynx and Esophagus 683
26.5 Stomach 685
Structure of the Stomach 686
Digestion and Absorption in the Stomach 687
26.6 Pancreas 688
Structure of the Pancreas 688
Pancreatic Juice 688
26.7 Liver and Gallbladder 688
Structure of the Liver and Gallbladder 688
Blood Supply of the Liver 690
Bile 690
Functions of the Liver 691
26.8 Small Intestine 692
Structure of the Small Intestine 692
Intestinal Juice 694
Mechanical Digestion in the Small Intestine 694
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine 694
Absorption in the Small Intestine 695
26.9 Large Intestine 697
Structure of the Large Intestine 697
Digestion and Absorption in the Large Intestine 700
The Defecation Reflex 700
26.10 Phases of Digestion 700
Cephalic Phase 700
Gastric Phase 700
Intestinal Phase 701
26.11 Aging and the Digestive System 701
Exhibit 26.1 The Digestive System and Homeostasis 702
Key Medical Terms Associated with the Digestive System 703
27 Nutrition and Metabolism 707
27.1 Nutrients 708
Guidelines for Healthy Eating 708
Minerals 709
Vitamins 710
27.2 Metabolism 711
Carbohydrate Metabolism 714
Lipid Metabolism 716
Protein Metabolism 718
27.3 Metabolism and Body Heat 719
Measuring Heat 719
Body Temperature Homeostasis 719
Regulation of Body Temperature 720
Key Medical Terms Associated with Nutrition and Metabolism 722
28 The Urinary System 726
28.1 Overview of the Urinary System 727
28.2 Structure of the Kidneys 728
External Anatomy of the Kidneys 728
Internal Anatomy of the Kidneys 728
Renal Blood Supply 728
Nephrons 729
28.3 Functions of the Nephron 732
Glomerular Filtration 732
Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion 734
Components of Urine 736
28.4 Transportation, Storage, and Elimination of Urine 737
Ureters 737
Urinary Bladder 737
Urethra 737
Micturition 738
28.5 Aging and the Urinary System 739
Key Medical Terms Associated with the Urinary System 739
Exhibit 28.1 The Urinary System and Homeostasis 740
29 The Reproductive Systems 744
29.1 Introduction to the Reproductive Systems 745
29.2 Male Reproductive System 745
Scrotum 745
Testes 745
Ducts 749
Accessory Sex Glands 750
Penis 752
29.3 Female Reproductive System 752
Ovaries 752
Uterine Tubes 755
Uterus 755
Vagina 756
Perineum and Vulva 756
Mammary Glands 758
29.4 Female Reproductive Cycle 759
Hormonal Regulation of the Female Reproductive Cycle 759
Phases of the Female Reproductive Cycle 759
29.5 Aging and the Reproductive Systems 763
Exhibit 29.1 The Reproductive Systems and Homeostasis 765
Key Medical Terms Associated with the Reproductive Systems 766
Appendix A: Measurements A1
Appendix B: Periodic Table B3
Appendix C: Answers C4
Glossary G1
Credits CR1
Index I1
