Clear, readable, and provocative with helpful appendices to provide additional information for readers who have little experience with economics, while simultaneously providing further detail for the economically sophisticated<
Trade Review
“This book is well-written and well-organized, and considers issues raised across several academic disciplines. Moreover, it is theoretically sound and provides a critical perspective on current research. The international comparisons are integrated and useful, broadening the understanding of gender differences. There is definitely a need for this book.”
Kathleen Rybczynski, University of Waterloo
“This new edition provides a good understanding of fundamental issues within the neoclassical framework in the specific context of the USA. The data and references too are extremely useful and provide a basis for further enquiry into the under-studied area of gender economics.”
Ritu Dewan, Center for Gender Economics, University of Mumbai
“This is a very good, accurate book with current empirical evidence and some very interesting discussions. The writing style is clear, and my students find it accessible.”
Rhona C. Free, Eastern Connecticut State University
Table of Contents
Preface xii
Part I What Are the Issues in the Economics of Gender? 1
1 Introduction 3
What Is the Economics of Gender? 3
Why Study the Economics of Gender? 4
How are Men and Women Different? 5
Focus: Gender, Gender, Everywhere 6
Why are Men and Women Different? 6
Focus: Why are Women Underrepresented in Science? 9
Critiques of the Economic Approach 14
Communication between Academic Disciplines 16
Focus: Gender and Metaphor in the Language of Economics 17
Summary 18
Endnotes 18
Further Reading 21
Discussion Questions 21
Appendix: The Repercussions of Scarcity 22
Opportunity Cost 22
The Marginal vs. Total Distinction 23
Markets 24
Focus: The Intrinsic Value Paradox: Are Diamonds and Water Like Lawyers and Child Care Workers? 26
Noncompetitive Markets—Monopoly and Monopsony 27
Policy Application: Effects of a Minimum Wage 30
Endnotes 31
Discussion Questions 32
2 Gender Differences in the U.S. Economy 33
How much do men and women work? 33
Focus: Will men be tomorrow’s “second sex”? 38
Where do women and men work? 39
How much money do men and women make? 42
How well-off are women and men? 45
Focus: Gender differences in charitable contributions 47
How do men and women allocate their time? 50
Policy application: Unemployment policy 51
Summary 53
Endnotes 53
Further reading and statistical sources 55
Discussion questions 56
Part II Why Do Women and Men Work? 59
3 The Household as Economic Unit 61
Household and marriage formation 61
Forces determining the division of labor 67
Who to marry and how to share 73
Focus: Is bachelorhood a pitiable state? 76
How is power distributed in households? 77
Focus: The economics of domestic violence 78
Household and marriage dissolution 79
Focus: Prenuptial and postnuptial agreements 80
Policy application: No-fault divorce 81
Summary 83
Endnotes 84
Further reading 88
Discussion questions 88
Appendix: Consumption and production relationships 89
Gains from trade 90
Budget constraints and indifference curves 92
Substitutes and complements 94
Endnote 96
Discussion questions 96
4 Labor Force Participation: Analysis of Trends 97
Trends in labor force participation 97
What has caused these trends? 105
Explanations of the rise in women’s labor force participation 107
Focus: What is higher-quality housework? 112
Explanations of the fall in men’s labor force participation 115
Trends in hours worked 117
Conclusions about economic factors affecting labor force participation 119
Extensions of the simple economic model 119
Focus: Changes in volunteerism rates 121
Predicting changes in the labor market 122
Policy application: Subsidized child care 123
Summary 126
Endnotes 126
Further reading 129
Discussion questions 130
Appendix: Labor supply 130
The decision to work 130
Policy application: An earnings tax 137
Endnotes 139
Discussion questions 139
5 Labor Force Participation: Consequences for Family Structure 140
Demographic trends 140
The question of causality 144
Focus: Early marriage as an element of Utopia 146
New household and family patterns 153
Changes in well-being of households and families 154
Focus: The price of success? Higher education and family life 157
Focus: Teenage mothers and the cycle of poverty 158
Policy application: Regulation of fertility—access to contraception and abortion 160
Summary 163
Endnotes 163
Further reading and statistical sources 167
Discussion questions 167
Part II Policy Application: Welfare Reform 169
What is welfare? 169
Who is poor? 169
Effects of welfare programs 171
Approaches to welfare reform 175
Focus: Making noncustodial parents pay 178
Focus: The Free the Children antipoverty program 179
Recent welfare reform in the U.S. 180
Endnotes 182
Further reading and statistical sources 183
Discussion questions 184
Part III the Earnings Puzzle: Why Do Women Earn Less Than Men? 187
6 Gender Segregation in the Workplace 189
The situation in various occupations 189
Focus: Directors and officers at Fortune 500 companies 192
Interpretation of large changes in the proportion of women in some occupations 192
Segregation index values 195
Cross-cultural segregation data 199
Theories of why segregation occurs and persists 202
Focus: Blind selection processes 205
The relationship between segregation and earnings 205
Focus: University coaches’ salaries 209
Effects of workforce policies on segregation 209
Policy application: Affirmative action 213
Summary 215
Endnotes 215
Further reading 219
Discussion questions 220
7 Causes of Earnings Differences: Human Capital 222
What is human capital? 222
How human capital investments affect earnings 223
Focus: The “mommy track” controversy 228
The significance of human capital theory for occupational choice 229
Focus: Is there gender bias in educational testing? 231
Evidence of effects of human capital differences on gender earnings differences 232
Focus: Is the classroom climate chilly for women? 237
Policy implications of human capital theory for the gender earnings gap 238
Policy application: Nontraditional job training programs 238
Summary 239
Endnotes 239
Further reading and statistical sources 242
Discussion questions 242
Appendix: Regression analysis 243
Endnotes 247
Discussion questions 247
8 Causes of Earnings Differences: Compensating Differentials 248
What is a compensating differential? 248
How do compensating differentials affect earnings? 249
Focus: Death on the job 251
Sorting of workers across firms and industries 252
Gender differences in preferences for job characteristics 253
Focus: Gender differences in “selling out” 256
Policy implications of compensating differentials for the gender earnings gap 260
Policy application: Workplace regulations 260
Summary 262
Endnotes 262
Further reading 264
Discussion questions 264
9 Causes of Earnings Differences: Discrimination 265
How economists define discrimination 265
Overview of evidence of workplace discrimination 266
Focus: The difficulties of filing discrimination charges 267
Focus: The Sears case 273
How do discrimination theories explain gender workplace differences? 274
Models involving tastes for discrimination 275
Models of discrimination that do not involve prejudice 278
Can discrimination exist in equilibrium? 284
Feedback effects from labor market discrimination 285
Devices for combating discrimination 285
Focus: Women don’t ask? Improving negotiation skills 287
Policy application: Anti-discrimination legislation 288
Summary 289
Endnotes 289
Further reading 294
Discussion questions 294
Part III Policy Application: Comparable Worth 296
What is comparable worth? 296
The pros and cons of comparable worth 297
Focus: Comparable worth for professors 303
How would comparable worth be implemented nationally? 304
Estimation of potential comparable worth benefits and costs 305
Evaluation of actual comparable worth policies 307
The need for policies to correct discrimination 309
Endnotes 310
Further reading 312
Discussion questions 313
Part IV Cross-societal Comparisons: Are Gender Differences the Same Everywhere? 315
10 Industrialized Capitalist Societies 317
Overview of levels and trends in these countries 317
Focus: Institutionalized pay discrimination in New Zealand 323
Focus: Swedish hiring quotas and Norwegian boardroom quotas 326
Examples from particular countries 327
Focus: Comparing tax system effects for Sweden and Germany 331
Social policies across advanced industrialized countries 332
Policy application: Child allowances 335
Summary 335
Endnotes 336
Further reading and statistical sources 339
Discussion questions 340
11 Socialist and Cooperative Societies 341
Why these societies might be expected to display more gender equality 341
Evaluation of actual practices 342
Focus: Causes of the progress of women in the Soviet Union 347
Examples from particular countries 348
Focus: How many “missing girls” are there in China? 349
Focus: Vietnam as a paradigm for transition? 354
Summary 354
Endnotes 354
Further reading and statistical sources 357
Discussion questions 357
12 Nonindustrialized Traditional Societies 359
Overview of levels and trends in these countries 359
Methods for evaluating the extent and value of work 367
Focus: Time use in Togo 368
Level of gender inequality by type of society 369
Focus: Flexible gender roles in American Indian societies 370
Focus: Sex ratios across societies 373
Examples from particular countries 373
Policy application: Rural–urban migration disincentives 376
Summary 377
Endnotes 377
Further reading 380
Discussion questions 381
13 Effects of the Development Process on Gender Differences 383
What is development? 383
Focus: Two Brazilian factories 388
Development effects on family structure 389
Focus: The marriage market in Singapore 390
Development policy topics 391
Focus: Bank loans in Bombay 394
Policy application: Foreign aid practices 395
Summary 396
Endnotes 396
Further reading and statistical sources 398
Discussion questions 399
Part V Historical Comparisons: How Do Gender Differences Vary Over Time? 401
14 Gender Differences in U.S. Economic History 403
Overview by era 403
Focus: Mill towns in New England 404
Long-run trends in labor markets 407
Focus: Bank tellers and the tipping phenomenon 411
Policies affecting men and women differently 414
Focus: The cigar industry 416
Policy application: Marriage bars 417
Summary 418
Endnotes 418
Further reading and statistical sources 421
Discussion questions 422
15 Race, Ethnicity, and Class Considerations in Interpreting Gender Differences 423
Gender differences across groups 423
Different conceptual frameworks for analyzing group differences 426
Focus: Does U.S. immigration law hurt women? 427
Displaced populations—American Indians 427
Repercussions of slavery: the African-American experience 428
Focus: Black progress in corporate America 430
Immigrant experiences 431
Group membership considerations in formulation of policy 434
Focus: Does Title IX discriminate against black men? 435
Policy application: Quotas in educational programs and hiring 436
Summary 437
Endnotes 437
Further reading 439
Discussion questions 439
16 Policy Proposals 441
Summary of policy approaches to gender issues 441
General precepts for policy formulation 442
Focus: Why don’t women get tenure? 448
Focus: Part-time lawyers 449
Policy application: Family-friendly benefits 451
Summary 451
Endnotes 451
Further reading and statistical sources 453
Discussion questions 453
Author index 455
Subject index 468
