Description
Book SynopsisThis is an accessible and practical introduction to research that addresses the broadest spectrum of research methodologies of interest to the student or new research, from experimental and survey approaches to program evaluation and ethnography. Research Essentials includes key interpretive and qualitative strategies. The book shows the role that research plays in the social sciences and education, followed by an overview of research traditions. It offers practical examples and relevant resources across the disciplines. Other features include study questions, lists of relevant journals, web sites, and organizations.
Table of ContentsTables, Figures, and Exhibits xvii
Preface xix
Introduction xxiii
The Editors xxvii
The Authors xxix
1 Research Ethics and the Use of Human Participants 1
K. Larson
Key Ideas 1
Ethical Standards 3
The Genesis of Research Standards 3
Federal Regulations for Ethical Research 4
Institutional Review Boards 5
Minimizing Risks to Participants 6
Informed Consent 6
Deception 9
Debriefing 11
Confidentiality and Anonymity 12
Publishing Research 13
Social Consequences of Unethical Research 14
Reading and Evaluating Studies 15
Summary 15
Key Terms 15
Further Readings and Resources 16
2 Understanding Literature Reviews 19
G. McAllister and A. Furlong
Key Ideas 19
What Is a Literature Review? 20
Basic Elements of a Literature Review 21
Types of Literature Reviews 22
Literature Reviews and Rigor 24
How to Read a Literature Review 25
Value of the Studies 27
Readability 27
Writing a Literature Review 29
Muck About 29
Set Your Parameters 29
Conduct Your Research 30
Analyze the Literature 30
Focus on the Purpose of Your Literature Review 31
Write Up the Literature Review 31
Summary 32
Key Terms 32
Further Readings and Resources 33
3 Essential Elements of Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research 35
W. E. Martin Jr. and K. D. Bridgmon
Key Ideas 35
Experimental Research Today 36
Essential Elements of Experimental Research 37
Processes of Designing and Conducting Experimental Research 38
Formulating Experimental Conditions and Procedures 41
Reducing Imprecision in Measurement 44
Controlling Extraneous Experimental Influences 47
Experimental Designs 50
Randomized Posttest Only Control Group Design 51
Randomized Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design 51
Randomized Multiple Treatments and Control with Pretest Design 51
Randomized Longitudinal Design 51
External Validity 52
Quasi-Experimental Research 54
Nonequivalent Control Group Design 54
Untreated Control Group Design with Dependent Pretest and Posttest Samples Using a Double Pretest 54
Multiple Time-Series Design 55
Summary 56
Key Terms 56
Further Readings and Resources 57
4 Nonexperimental Quantitative Research 59
G. Belli
Key Ideas 59
Overview of Nonexperimental Research 60
Variables and Their Measurement 61
Defining Variables 62
Phrasing Questions 64
Classifying Nonexperimental Research 64
Classification Based on Purpose (Dimension 1) 65
Classification Based on Time (Dimension 2) 66
Combining Classification Dimensions 68
Causal Explanations and Nonexperimental Studies 71
Requirements for Causality 72
Ruling Out Alternative Hypotheses 73
Analysis and Interpretation in Nonexperimental Studies 75
Summary 76
Key Terms 76
Further Readings and Resources 77
5 A Primer of Survey Methods 79
M. Berends and G. Zottola
Key Ideas 79
What Is Survey Research? 80
Surveys You Know 80
The Research Process 81
Choosing a Topic 82
Focusing the Research: Concepts and Constructs 82
Hypotheses, Variables, and Operationalization 82
Independent Versus Dependent Variables 83
Writing Good Survey Questions 84
Piloting and Cognitive Interviews 87
Sampling, Response Rates, and Nonresponse 88
Probability or Random Sampling 89
Simple, Stratified, and Systemic Samples 89
Nonprobability Sampling 90
Response Rates and Nonresponse 91
Is the Framework Intact? 92
Data Reduction 92
Types of Surveys 93
Face-to-Face Interviews 93
Telephone Surveys 94
Mail Surveys 95
Internet and Web-Based Surveys 95
Ethical Issues in Survey Research 96
Ways to Ensure Confidentiality and Increase Anonymity 96
Informed Consent 97
Ethics Beyond Data Collection 98
Summary 98
Key Terms 99
Further Readings and Resources 99
6 Quantitative Data Analysis 103
M. T. Quartaroli
Key Ideas 103
What Do Those Numbers Mean? 104
Meanings of Numbers 104
Summarizing Data: Descriptive Statistics 105
Frequency Distributions 105
Distribution Patterns 107
Types of Numerical Data 111
Measures of Central Tendency 113
Measures of Variability 117
Measures of Relative Position 120
Measures of Relationship 122
Descriptive Statistics Are Important 124
Generalizing Results: Inferential Statistics 124
Tests of Significance 125
Selection of the Statistical Tests 126
Using Inferential Statistics for Decision Making 127
Evaluating Reports with Quantitative Data 128
Summary 129
Key Terms 129
Further Readings and Resources 130
7 Understanding Meta-Analyses 131
G. V Glass
Key Ideas 131
What Is Meta-Analysis? 132
Meta-Analysis Illustrated 132
Evaluating Meta-Analyses 138
Another Example 140
Summary 143
Key Terms 143
Further Readings and Resources 144
8 Evaluating Historical Research 145
L. M. Hines
Key Ideas 145
Basics of Historical Research 146
How Are Questions Posed, or “So What?” 148
Intriguing and Important Questions 148
Filling a Gap 149
Interpretive Differences 149
Exploring Current Policy 150
What Data Are Used, or “How Do You Know?” 151
Primary Sources 152
Secondary Sources 156
What Is the Interpretation, or “Why Do You Think That?” 157
Foci of Historical Studies 157
Perspective on History 159
Categories of Analysis 160
Types of Historical Research 160
Learning More 162
Summary 163
Key Terms 163
Further Readings and Resources 164
9 Case Study Research 165
S. D. Lapan and S. W. J. Armfield
Key Ideas 165
Purposes of Program Case Studies 167
Program Case Study Designs 168
One-Shot or Snapshot Design 168
Longitudinal Design 168
Comparison Design 169
Identifying the Case 169
Planning and Conducting Case Studies 170
Case Study Example: The Sentinel Middle School TILE Program 171
Case Study Question 1: Influence on Instructional Planning 173
Case Study Question 2: Student Thinking in Classroom Discussions 174
Common Case Study Characteristics 177
Learning from Case Studies 177
Trusting Case Study Reports 178
Summary 179
Key Terms 179
Further Readings and Resources 179
10 Program Evaluation 181
S. D. Lapan and C. M. Haden
Key Ideas 181
What Is Evaluation? 182
The Logic of Evaluation 182
Qualitative Versus Quantitative Data 183
Forms of Evaluation 183
Definition of a Program 184
Purposes of Program Evaluation 185
Program Evaluation History 186
How Is Evaluation Done? 187
Evaluation Agreement 188
Criteria and Standard Selection 188
Measuring Through Data Collection 190
Synthesizing and Reporting Study Results 193
Trusting Program Evaluation Findings 194
Ethics in Evaluation Studies 195
Judging Program Evaluation Studies 196
Evaluator Qualifications 196
Evaluation Planning 197
Evaluation Design 197
Evaluation Process 197
Data Richness 198
Study Validity 198
Study Report 199
Study Use 199
Summary 200
Key Terms 200
Further Readings and Resources 200
11 Ethnography Research 203
F. J. Riemer
Key Ideas 203
Groping in the Dark 204
What Is Ethnography Research? 204
Ethnography Is Descriptive 206
Ethnographic Methods 207
Data Collection 209
Risks of Ethnography Research 210
Ethnographic Data Analysis 211
Writing Up Field Notes 213
Writing Up Ethnography Research 214
Problems of Representation 215
Reading Ethnography 217
What Should a Reader Do? 217
Practice Your Reading Skills 218
Summary 218
Key Terms 218
Further Readings and Resources 219
12 Feminism(S): Critique and Transformation 223
R. Lalik and C. B. Felderman
Key Ideas 223
Feminism in Academic and Popular Discourse 224
Variability Among Feminisms 225
Waves of Feminism 225
African American Feminists Broaden the Conversation 226
Feminism(s) and the Critique of Science 228
Critique Related to Women’s Participation in Scientific Endeavors 229
Critique Related to the Erasure of Knowledge About Successful Women Scientists 229
Critique Related to the Patriarchal Nature of Science 230
Critique Related to the Epistemology of Science 231
Possibilities for a Feminist Epistemology 232
Feminism(s) and Research Method and Methodology 235
Resisting a Doctrine of Neutrality 235
Interrupting Efforts to Simplify and Universalize Knowledge 236
Studying How Women and Other Marginalized People Experience Life 237
Researching with Intention to Transform Society 238
Summary 239
Key Terms 239
Further Readings and Resources 240
13 Using Multiple Methods Approaches 243
P. A. Schutz, S. L. Nichols and K. A. Rodgers
Key Ideas 243
What is Multimethod Research? 244
Potential Benefits of Multimethod Research 245
An Early Comment on the Benefits of Multiple Methods Research 245
Adaptability of Multimethod Research 246
Strength and Quality of Inferencing 248
Summary of Benefits 251
Multimethod Research Design 251
Designs 252
Sampling Schemes 254
Multimethod Sampling 255
Research Design Conclusion 256
Summary 256
Key Terms 257
Further Readings and Resources 257
14 Qualitative Data Analysis 259
M. T. Quartaroli
Key Ideas 259
Words, Words, Words—Now What? 260
Organizing the Data 261
Describing the Data 264
Coding the Data 264
How Patterns Emerge 267
Representing the Findings 269
Writing Memos 269
Creating Vignettes 269
Developing Metaphors 269
Creating Diagrams or Displays 270
Building Theory 270
Data Analysis Is Iterative 271
Evaluating Reports with Qualitative Data 271
Summary 273
Key Terms 273
Further Readings and Resources 273
15 Applying Research Methods to Professional Practice 275
D. Hopkins and E. Ahtaridou
Key Ideas 275
What Is Action Research? 276
Models of Action Research 278
Kemmis Model 278
Elliott Model 278
Ebbutt Model 280
Methods of Action Research 282
Developing a Focus 283
Practitioner Reflection in Action 283
Data Collection Methods 284
A Framework for Data Analysis 289
Data Collection 289
Validation 289
Interpretation 290
Action 290
Summary 291
Key Terms 292
Further Readings and Resources 292
16 Research, Policy, and Practice: The Great Disconnect 295
D. C. Berliner
Key Ideas 295
Origins of Faith and Apostasy in Research as a Guide to Practice 296
Examples of the Problem 298
Case 1 298
Case 2 299
Case 3 300
Case 4 301
Why the Disconnect? 302
The Privacy Problem 302
The Changed Roles Problem 303
The Problem of Complexity in Classrooms and Other Social Settings 303
The Problem of Science When It Delves into the Arts 304
The Problem of Quality in Research 305
The Problem of Relevance 306
The Problem of Accessibility to Ideas by Practitioners 307
The Problems of Stability and Instability in the Education System 307
How Might Things Change? 309
Summary 312
Key Terms 313
References 315
Index 327
