Design Tools: How to utilize the b
Table of Contents
Foreword to The Fifth Edition xiii
Edward Mazria
Foreword to The First Edition xv
James Marston Fitch
Preface xvii
Acknowledgements xix
Part I Fundamentals 1
1 Background: Architecture In A Warming World 3
1.1 Introduction 4
1.2 Indigenous and Vernacular Architecture 5
1.3 Formal Architecture 6
1.4 Architecture and Energy 8
1.5 The Architectural Approach to Low-Energy Design 11
1.6 Climate and Architecture 14
1.7 Dynamic Versus Static Buildings 15
1.8 Form, Color and Ornamentation 15
1.9 Biophilic Design 18
1.10 Resilient Design 18
1.11 Sustainability Codes and Voluntary Programs 20
1.12 The Moral Imperative 20
1.13 Conclusion 21
Executive Summary 21
Resources 22
2 Climate Change: The Key Sustainability Issue 23
2.1 Easter Island: Learning From the Past 24
2.2 Sustainable Design and Climate Change 24
2.3 Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, and Regenerate by Design 25
2.4 The Sustainability Movement 27
2.5 The Basic Causes of Environmental Problems 28
2.6 Growth 31
2.7 Exponential Growth 31
2.8 The Amoeba Analogy 32
2.9 Supply Versus Efficiency 33
2.10 Sustainable-Design Issues 33
2.11 Embodied Energy 34
2.12 Climate Change 35
2.13 The Ozone Hole 37
2.14 Efficiency Versus Renewable Energy 37
2.15 Energy Sources 37
2.16 Energy Use in Ancient Greece 38
2.17 Nonrenewable Fossil Energy Sources 39
2.18 Nuclear Energy 40
2.19 Renewable Energy Sources 41
2.20 Conclusion 48
Executive Summary 49
Resources 50
3 Basic Principles: The Physics Of Heat Flow For Heating And Cooling Buildings 51
3.1 Introduction 52
3.2 Heat 52
3.3 Sensible Heat 52
3.4 Latent Heat 53
3.5 Evaporative Cooling 53
3.6 Convection 54
3.7 Transport 54
3.8 Energy-Transfer Mediums 55
3.9 Radiation 55
3.10 Greenhouse Effect 57
3.11 Equilibrium Temperature of a Surface 58
3.12 Mean Radiant Temperature 59
3.13 Heat Flow 59
3.14 Heat Sink 60
3.15 Heat Capacity 60
3.16 Thermal Resistance 60
3.17 Heat-Flow Coefficient 61
3.18 Time Lag 61
3.19 Insulating Effect of Mass 62
3.20 Energy Conversion 63
3.21 Combined Heat and Power 63
3.22 Off-Site Versus On-Site Renewable Energy 64
3.23 The Game Changers: Heat Pumps and Batteries 64
3.24 Net-Zero Buildings 65
3.25 Conclusion 65
Executive Summary 66
4 Climate: Its Significant Impact On Buildings 67
4.1 Introduction 68
4.2 Climate 68
4.3 Microclimate 70
4.4 Climatic Anomalies 73
4.5 Climate Regions in a Time of Climate Change 74
4.6 Explanations of the Climatic Data Tables 75
4.7 Relative Heating and Cooling Loads 80
4.8 Climatic Data Tables 84
4.9 Design Strategies 119
Executive Summary 125
Resources 126
5 Psychometrics: Thermal Comfort 127
5.1 Biological Machine 128
5.2 Thermal Barriers 129
5.3 Metabolic Rate 131
5.4 Thermal Conditions of the Environment 131
5.5 The Psychrometric Chart 133
5.6 Dew Point and Wet-Bulb Temperatures 135
5.7 Heat Content of Air 136
5.8 Thermal Comfort 138
5.9 Shifting of the Comfort Zone 139
5.10 Adaptive Comfort 141
5.11 Clothing and Comfort 141
5.12 Strategies 142
5.13 Conclusion 142
Executive Summary 143
Resources 143
6 Solar Geometry: The Most Powerful Element Of Design 145
6.1 Introduction 146
6.2 The Sun 146
6.3 Elliptical Orbit 146
6.4 Tilt of the Earth’s Axis 147
6.5 Consequences of the Altitude Angle 147
6.6 Winter 148
6.7 The Sun Revolves Around the Earth! 149
6.8 The Sky Dome 149
6.9 Determining Altitude and Azimuth Angles 150
6.10 Solar Time 152
6.11 Horizontal Sun-Path Diagrams 152
6.12 Vertical Sun-Path Diagrams 154
6.13 Drawing Sunbeams 155
6.14 Sun-Path Models 159
6.15 Solar Heat Gain 160
6.16 Solar Site-Evaluation tools 165
6.17 Heliodons 165
6.18 Sundials for Model Testing 166
6.19 Conceptually Clear Heliodons 167
6.20 Solar Responsive Design Strategies 168
6.20 Conclusion 170
Executive Summary 170
Resources 171
Part II Passive Design Strategies 173
7 Passive Heating Systems: The Solar Potential Of Natural Heating 175
7.1 History 176
7.2 Solar in America 177
7.3 Solar Hemicycle 178
7.4 Latest Rediscovery of Passive Solar 179
7.5 Passive Solar 180
7.6 Direct-Gain Systems 181
7.7 Design Guidelines for Direct-Gain Systems 183
7.8 Example 186
7.9 Trombe Wall Systems 186
7.10 Design Guidelines for Trombe Wall Systems 190
7.11 Example 190
7.12 Sunspaces 190
7.13 Balcomb House 193
7.14 Sunspace Design Guidelines 194
7.15 Comparison of the Three Main Passive Heating Systems 195
7.16 General Considerations for Passive Solar Systems 196
7.17 Heat-Storage Materials 201
7.18 Other Passive Heating Systems 203
7.19 Maximizing Passive Solar 204
7.20 Conclusion 204
Executive Summary 205
Resources 205
8 Solar Rejection: Shading and Light Colors 207
8.1 Introduction to Solar Rejection 208
8.2 History of Shading and Light Colors 208
8.3 Shading Myths 213
8.4 Shading Basics 215
8.5 Fixed Exterior Shading Devices 217
8.6 Dynamic (Movable) Shading Devices 220
8.7 Shading Periods of the Year 229
8.8 Overhangs 232
8.9 Design of Horizontal Overhangs: Basic Graphical Method 233
8.10 Shading Design Strategies for South Windows 235
8.11 Shading Design Strategies for East and West Windows 236
8.12 Design of Fins on North Windows 240
8.13 Design Guidelines for Eggcrate Shading Devices 241
8.14 Special Shading Strategies 241
8.15 Shading Outdoor Spaces 245
8.16 Using Physical Models for Shading Design 247
8.17 Glazing as the Shading Element 253
8.18 Interior Shading Devices 259
8.19 Solar Heat Gain Coefficient 260
8.20 Roof and Wall Reflectivity 260
8.21 Conclusion 263
Executive Summary 267
Resources 267
9 Passive Cooling: Natural Cooling, Raising the Comfort Zone, And Heat Avoidance 269
9.1 Introduction to Cooling 270
9.2 Historical and Indigenous Use of Passive Cooling 270
9.3 Passive Cooling Systems 276
9.4 Comfort Ventilation Versus Night- Flush Cooling 277
9.5 Basic Principles of Airflow 277
9.6 Airflow Through Buildings 281
9.7 Example of Ventilation Design 291
9.8 Comfort Ventilation 293
9.9 Night-Flush Cooling 295
9.10 Double-Skin Facades and Operable Roofs 298
9.11 Radiant Cooling 299
9.12 Evaporative Cooling 304
9.13 Cool Towers 307
9.14 Earth Cooling 308
9.15 Dehumidification with a Desiccant 311
9.16 Solar Chimney 311
9.17 Conclusion 313
Executive Summary 313
Resources 313
10 Site Analysis: Orientation, Landscape and Context In Net-Zero Design 315
10.1 Introduction 316
10.2 Analysis 317
10.3 Site Selection 319
10.4 Solar Access 320
10.5 Shadow Patterns 322
10.6 Site Planning 326
10.7 Solar Zoning 328
10.8 Physical Models 332
10.9 Wind and Site Design 334
10.10 Plants and Vegetation 338
10.11 Vegetated Roofs 347
10.12 Lawns 350
10.13 Landscaping 350
10.14 Community Design 356
10.15 Cooling Our Communities 358
10.16 Conclusion 359
Executive Summary 360
Resources 360
11 Light: Color, Vision, and Perception 363
11.1 Introduction 364
11.2 Light 365
11.3 Reflectance/Transmittance 368
11.4 Color 369
11.5 Vision 372
11.6 Perception 374
11.7 Performance of a Visual Task 377
11.8 Characteristics of the Visual Task 377
11.9 Illumination Level 379
11.10 Brightness Ratios 380
11.11 Glare 382
11.12 Equivalent Spherical Illumination 385
11.13 Activity Needs 387
11.14 Biological Needs 390
11.15 Light and Health 393
11.16 The Poetry of Light 393
11.17 Rules for Lighting Design 394
11.18 Career Possibilities 395
11.19 Conclusion 395
Executive Summary 396
Resources 397
12 Daylighting: Architectural Control for Natural Beauty, Comfort, and Energy Reduction 399
12.1 History of Daylighting 400
12.2 Why Daylighting? 402
12.3 The Nature of Daylight 404
12.4 Conceptual Model 407
12.5 Illumination and the Daylight Factor 408
12.6 Light Without Heat? 411
12.7 Cool Daylight 411
12.8 Goals of Daylighting 413
12.9 Basic Daylighting Strategies 414
12.10 Basic Window Strategies 417
12.11 Advanced Window Strategies 420
12.12 Window Glazing Materials 425
12.13 Top Lighting 428
12.14 Skylight Strategies 429
12.15 Clerestories, Monitors, and Light Scoops 433
12.16 Special Daylighting Techniques 437
12.17 Translucent Walls and Roofs 439
12.18 Electric Lighting as a Supplement to Daylighting 443
12.19 Physical Modeling 445
12.20 Guidelines for Daylighting 450
12.21 Conclusion 451
Executive Summary 451
Resources 452
13 The Thermal Envelope: Keeping Warm and Staying Cool 453
13.1 Introduction 454
13.2 Heat Loss 455
13.3 Heat Gain 456
13.4 Solar Reflectivity (Albedo) 458
13.5 Compactness, Exposed Area, and Thermal Planning 459
13.6 Insulation Materials 461
13.7 The Thermal Envelope 468
13.8 Heat Bridges 473
13.9 Windows 474
13.10 Dynamic Insulation 480
13.11 Insulating Effect from Thermal Mass 483
13.12 Earth Sheltering 487
13.13 Infiltration and Ventilation 494
13.14 Water: The Enemy of Architecture 496
13.15 Radon 500
13.16 Appliances 500
13.17 Conclusion 502
Executive Summary 502
Resources 503
14 Retrofits: Energy Efficiency Upgrades for Existing Buildings 505
14.1 Introduction 506
14.2 Goals for the Energy Upgrade 506
14.3 Envelope Upgrades 506
14.4 Lighting 507
14.5 Mechanical Equipment 508
14.6 Hot Water 508
14.7 Appliances 508
14.8 Renewable Energy 508
14.9 Miscellaneous 508
14.10 Case Studies 508
Executive Summary 510
15 Tropical Architecture: Not your Temperate Architecture 511
15.1 Introduction 512
15.2 Traditional Tropical Architecture 512
15.3 The Tropical Climate 515
15.4 The Solar Geometry of the Tropics 517
15.5 Shading in Tropical Climates 521
15.6 Daylighting in the Tropics 524
15.7 Passive Cooling 525
15.8 Air-Conditioned Buildings in the Tropics 526
15.9 Conclusion 528
Executive Summary 528
Part III Active Design Strategies 529
16 Electric Lighting: To Complement Daylight and At Night 531
16.1 Introduction 532
16.2 History of Light Sources 532
16.3 Light Sources 533
16.4 Incandescent and Halogen Lamps 534
16.5 Discharge Lamps 535
16.6 Fluorescent Lamps 537
16.7 High-Intensity Discharge Lamps 539
16.8 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 540
16.9 Comparison of the Major Lighting Sources 542
16.10 Luminaires 542
16.11 Lenses, Diffusers, and Baffles 542
16.12 Lighting Systems 545
16.13 Remote-Source Lighting Systems 548
16.14 Visualizing Light Distribution 548
16.15 Architectural Lighting 549
16.16 Outdoor Lighting 552
16.17 Emergency Lighting 553
16.18 Controls 554
16.19 Maintenance 556
16.20 Rules for Energy-Efficient Electric Lighting Design 556
16.21 Laws and Standards 557
16.22 Conclusion 557
Executive Summary 557
Resources 557
17 Photovoltaics And Solar Thermal 559
17.1 Introduction 560
17.2 The Almost Ideal Energy Source 560
17.3 History of PV 561
17.4 The PV Cell 561
17.5 Types of PV Systems 562
17.6 Balance of System Equipment 563
17.7 Site-Integrated Photovoltaics 564
17.8 Glazing and PV 569
17.9 Orientation and Tilt 569
17.10 Design Guidelines 571
17.11 The Promise of PV 571
17.12 Sizing A PV System 572
17.13 The Cost-Effectiveness of PV Versus Solar Thermal Applications 573
17.14 Solar Thermal Basics 574
17.15 Solar Thermal Swimming-Pool Heating 574
17.16 Solar Hot-Water Systems 575
17.17 Passive Solar Thermal Systems 577
17.18 Solar Hot-Air Collectors 579
17.19 Preheating of Ventilation Air 579
17.20 Designing a Solar Thermal System 582
17.21 The Future of Solar Thermal 583
17.22 Conclusion 585
Executive Summary 586
Resources 587
18 Mechanical Equipment for Heating and Cooling 589
18.1 Introduction 590
18.2 Heating 590
18.3 Thermal Zones 592
18.4 Heating Systems 593
18.5 Electric Heating 594
18.6 Hot-Water (Hydronic) Heating 595
18.7 Hot-Air Systems 597
18.8 Cooling 599
18.9 Refrigeration Cycles 602
18.10 Heat Pumps 604
18.11 Geo-Exchange 605
18.12 Cooling Systems 606
18.13 Air-Conditioning for Small Buildings 609
18.14 Air-Conditioning for Large Multistory Buildings 614
18.15 Design Guidelines for Mechanical Systems 626
18.16 Air Supply (Ducts and Diffusers) 627
18.17 Ventilation 631
18.18 Energy-Efficient Ventilation Systems 633
18.19 Air Filtration and Odor Removal 636
18.20 Special Systems 636
18.21 Integrated and Exposed Mechanical Equipment 638
18.22 Low-Energy Heating and Cooling 639
18.23 Conclusion 639
Executive Summary 640
Resources 641
Part IV Integrated Design 643
19 Synergies: When the Whole Is Greater Than the Sum of the Parts 645
19.1 Introduction 646
19.2 Strategies 646
19.3 Synergies 650
19.4 Case Studies 651
19.5 Conclusion 657
Executive Summary 657
20 Integrated Design Process 659
20.1 Introduction 660
20.2 Definition 660
20.3 Differences 660
20.4 Coordination 660
20.5 Documentation 662
20.6 Conclusion 668
Executive Summary 668
Part V Tools 669
21 Codes 671
21.1 Introduction 672
21.2 Sustainability Codes 672
21.3 History 673
21.4 Current Model Codes 673
21.5 Reference Standards 675
21.6 Government Initiatives 675
21.7 Non-Governmental Initiatives 676
21.8 Conclusion 678
Executive Summary 678
22 Checklist for Designing Net-Zero Buildings 679
22.1 Introduction 680
22.2 Site Selection 680
22.3 Form 680
22.4 Plan 680
22.5 Windows 680
22.6 Daylighting 681
22.7 Shading 681
22.8 Color 682
22.9 Thermal Envelope 682
22.10 Thermal Mass 682
22.11 Glazing 682
22.12 Air Barrier 683
22.13 Passive Systems 683
22.14 Electric Lighting 683
22.15 Mechanical Equipment 684
22.16 Behavioral Controls 684
22.17 Renewable Technology 684
23 Assessment 685
23.1 Introduction 686
23.2 Global Rating Systems 686
23.3 Process 688
23.4 Conclusion 688
Executive Summary 688
24 Digital 691
24.1 Introduction 692
24.2 Building Performance Analytics 692
24.3 Methodology 692
24.4 Challenges 693
24.5 Conclusion 695
Executive Summary 695
Appendix A Horizontal Sun-Path Diagrams 699
Steps for Converting Sun-Path Charts for Use in the Southern Hemisphere 699
Appendix B Vertical Sun-Path Diagrams 711
Steps for Converting Sun-Path Charts for Use in the Southern Hemisphere 711
Appendix C Solar Altitude And Azimuth Angles 723
Appendix D Methods for Estimating the Height of Trees, Buildings, and the Like 729
D.1 Proportional-Shadow Method 729
D.2 Similar-Triangle Method 729
D.3 45° Right-Triangle Method 730
D.4 Trigonometric Method 730
D.5 Tools for Measuring Vertical Angles 730
Appendix E Sundials 733
Appendix F Sun-Path Models 743
F.1 Introduction 743
F.2 Directions for Constructing a Sun-Path Model 743
Appendix G The Water Table For Ventilation Studies 755
G.1 Introduction 755
G.2 Construction of a Water Table 755
Appendix H Site Evaluation Tools 757
H.1 Introduction 757
H.2 The Solar Pathfinder 757
H.3 The Suneye 757
H.4 The Sun Locator 758
H.5 Do-It-Yourself Solar Site Evaluator 758
Appendix I Heliodons 765
I.1 Introduction 765
I.2 The Sun Simulator Heliodon 765
I.3 The Sun Emulator Heliodon 765
I.4 The Tabletop Heliodon 766
I.5 The Bowling Ball Heliodon 769
Appendix J Tables Of R-Values 771
Appendix K Resources 775
K.1 Journals 775
K.2 Videos 775
K.3 Organizations 775
K.4 Web-Based Resources 776
Appendix L Conversion Factors between the Inch-Pound (I-P) System and the International System of Units (Si) 777
Appendix M Appendix M: Sizing A Pv Array 781
M.1 Finding the PV Array Size for a Stand-Alone Building by the Short Calculation Method 781
M.2 Example 782
M.3 Design Guidelines 782
Bibliography 785
Index 791
