A guide to the cultivation, extraction, analysis, DNA sequencing, and marketin
Table of Contents
List of Contributors xix
Preface xxiii
Part I Production of Vanilla – Agricultural Systems and Curing 1
1 Mexican Vanilla Production 3
Juan Hernandez‐Hernández
1.1 Introduction 3
1.1.1 The Mexican Vanilla Legend 4
1.2 Cultivation Methods 5
1.2.1 “Traditional”/Acahual 5
1.2.2 Intensive System (Monoculture) 6
1.2.3 Vanilla Cultivation in Existing Orange Groves 6
1.2.4 Shade Houses 7
1.3 Vanilla Propagation Techniques 8
1.3.1 Preparation and Disinfection of Cuttings 8
1.3.2 Establishing Cuttings – Timing 8
1.3.3 Establishing Cuttings – Planting 9
1.3.4 New Bud Formation and Root Growth 9
1.4 Irrigation 9
1.5 Nutrition 10
1.5.1 Mulch 10
1.5.2 Building Compost 10
1.6 Weed Control 11
1.7 Shade Management (Pruning of Support Trees) 11
1.8 Shoot Management – Looping 12
1.9 Shoot Management – Rooting 12
1.10 Main Vanilla Insect Pest 12
1.11 Main Vanilla Diseases 13
1.11.1 Anthracnose 14
1.11.2 Rust 14
1.11.3 Yellowing and Pre‐mature Fruit Drop 14
1.12 Flowering and Pollination 14
1.12.1 Percent of Flowering Plants 15
1.12.2 Natural Pollination 15
1.12.3 Hand Pollination 15
1.12.4 Quantity of Flowers to be Pollinated 17
1.12.5 Fruit Development 17
1.13 Harvesting 17
1.13.1 Harvesting Practices 18
1.13.2 Preventing Theft 18
1.14 Green Vanilla Commercialization 19
1.14.1 Prices 19
1.15 Curing 19
1.15.1 Yield Ratio of Green/Cured Vanilla 21
1.16 Grading 21
1.16.1 Packing 22
1.17 Buyers 23
1.18 Export Volume 23
1.19 Prices 23
1.20 Aromatic Profile 23
1.21 Summary 24
References 24
2 Vanilla Diseases 27
Juan Hernandez‐Hernández
2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Root and Stem Rot (Fusarium oxysporum f. Sp. Vanillae) 27
2.2.1 Description 27
2.2.2 Damage 28
2.2.3 Control 28
2.3 Black Rot (Phytophtora Sp.) 29
2.3.1 Description 29
2.3.2 Damage 29
2.3.3 Control 29
2.4 Anthracnose (Colletotrichum Sp.) 30
2.4.1 Description 30
2.4.2 Damage 31
2.4.3 Control 31
2.5 Rust (Uromyces Sp.) 31
2.5.1 Description 31
2.5.2 Damage
2.5.3 Control 32
2.6 Rotting of Recently Planted Cuttings 32
2.6.1 Description 32
2.6.2 Damage 32
2.6.3 Control 33
2.7 Yellowing and Shedding of Young Fruits 33
2.7.1 Description 33
2.7.2 Damage 34
2.7.3 Control 34
2.8 Viral Diseases 35
2.8.1 Cymbidium Mosaic Virus (CYMV) 35
2.8.2 Vanilla Mosaic Virus (VMV) 35
2.8.3 Vanilla Necrosis Potyvirus (VNPV) 35
2.8.4 Odontoglossum Ringspot Virus (ORSV) 35
2.8.5 Prevention of Viral Diseases 36
2.9 Damage by Adverse Climatic Factors 36
2.9.1 Natural Pruning of the Apical Buds 36
2.9.1.1 Description 36
2.9.1.2 Damage 37
2.9.1.3 Control 37
2.10 Damage from Sunburn 37
2.10.1 Description 37
2.10.2 Damage 37
2.10.3 Control 38
2.11 Hurricanes 38
References 39
3 Vanilla Production in Costa Rica 41
Elida Varela Quirós
3.1 Introduction 41
3.2 History of Vanilla Production in Costa Rica 42
3.2.1 The First Phase of Large‐scale Cultivation in Costa Rica 42
3.2.2 The Second Phase of Vanilla Cultivation in Costa Rica 42
3.2.3 The Third Phase 43
3.3 Vanilla Production – The Traditional System 45
3.4 Vanilla Production – The Intensive System 47
3.5 Propagation 48
3.6 Diseases and Pests 49
3.7 Vanilla Bean Processing 50
3.8 Conclusions 50
References 51
4 Atypical Flowering of Vanilla planifolia in the Region of Junín, Peru 53
Juan Hernández-Hernández
4.1 Preparation of the “Mother” Plant (Cuttings) 54
4.2 Planting Method 54
4.2.1 Weed Control 55
4.2.2 Shoot Management – Looping 55
4.2.3 Shoot Management – Rooting 55
4.3 Nutrition 55
4.4 Irrigation 55
4.5 Pests, Disorders, and Diseases 57
4.5.1 Vanilla Pest 57
4.5.2 Diseases 57
4.5.3 Intense Solar Radiation 57
4.5.4 New Pest 57
4.5.5 New Disease 58
4.6 Flowering Period 59
4.6.1 Atypical Vanilla Bloom in Peru 59
4.7 Hand Pollination 60
4.8 Harvesting 61
4.9 Vanilla Curing 62
4.10 Final Comments 62
References 63
5 Vanilla Production in the Context of Culture, Economics, and Ecology of Belize 65
Nelle Gretzinger and Dawn Dean
5.1 Introduction 65
5.1.1 Toledo Agriculture and Socio‐demographics Today 66
5.1.2 Maya Mountain Research Farm 66
5.1.3 Agro‐ecological Systems 67
5.1.4 Maya Mountain Research Farm Vanilla Cultivation and Introduction Project 68
5.1.5 The Belize Organic Vanilla Association 69
5.1.6 OVA Description and Goals 69
5.1.7 Innovative Vanilla Plantation Establishment Method Pioneered by OVA Members Nicasio and Ophelia Chee Sanchez 71
5.1.8 Wild/Relic Vanilla Stands in Toledo District 72
5.1.9 Possibility of Wild Superior or Useful Genotypes/Species 74
5.1.10 Dr Pesach Lubinsky’s Research in Belize and Regarding Vanilla tahitensis 74
5.1.11 Manche Chol 76
5.2 Discussion 78
Acknowledgments 79
References 82
6 Conservation and Sustainable Use of Vanilla Crop Wild Relatives in Colombia 85
Nicola S. Flanagan, Paul Chavarriaga, and Ana Teresa Mosquera‐Espinosa
6.1 Introduction 85
6.1.1 Low Genetic Diversity in the Vanilla Crop 85
6.1.2 The Importance of Crop Wild Relatives for Agriculture 85
6.2 Vanilla Crop Wild Relatives 86
6.2.1 Phylogenetic Diversity Within the Genus Vanilla 86
6.2.2 The Secondary Gene Pool for Vanilla 86
6.2.3 Vanilla Diversity in Colombia 87
6.3 Vanilla Species in the Wild 89
6.3.1 Vanilla Species are Rare in the Wild 89
6.3.2 Reproductive Biology of Vanilla Wild Species 91
6.3.2.1 Pollinators 91
6.3.2.2 Autogamy 91
6.3.3 Mycorrhizal Interactions 92
6.3.4 Further Interactions with the Microbiome 93
6.3.5 Bioclimatic and Biophysical Adaptations 94
6.4 Conservation of Vanilla Crop Wild Relatives 95
6.4.1 Threats to Conservation 95
6.4.2 Conservation In situ 96
6.4.3 Conservation Ex situ 96
6.4.4 Conservation Ex situ of the Vanilla Microbiome 98
6.4.5 Conservation of Circa situm and Sustainable Use 98
6.5 Biotechnological Approaches for Vanilla Genetic Resource Conservation and Utilization 100
6.5.1 Characterization and Utilization of Genetic Diversity 100
6.5.1.1 DNA Barcoding 100
6.5.1.2 Genomic Characterization of Vanilla 100
6.5.2 Application of Microorganisms in Vanilla Cultivation 101
6.6 An Integrated Strategy for Conservation and Sustainable Use of Vanilla Crop Wild Relatives 101
6.6.1 A Colombian National Strategy for Vanilla CWR 101
6.6.2 International Strategy for Conservation of Vanilla CWR 102
References 102
7 The History of Vanilla in Puerto Rico: Diversity, Rise, Fall, and Future Prospects 111
Paul Bayman
7.1 Introduction 111
7.2 Diversity of Wild Vanilla in Puerto Rico 111
7.2.1 Species and Distributions 111
7.2.2 Flowering, Pollination, and Fruit Set 112
7.3 Rise and Fall: The History of Vanilla Cultivation in Puerto Rico 112
7.4 Socioeconomic Factors Contributing to the Decline of Vanilla 114
7.5 Diseases and Decline 114
7.5.1 Fusarium Root and Stem Rot (RSR) 115
7.5.1.1 The Pathogen 115
7.5.1.2 Symptoms of RSR 116
7.5.1.3 Other Fusarium Species 116
7.5.2 Other Diseases and Pests 116
7.5.3 Possible Solutions to RSR 116
7.5.3.1 Biological Control 116
7.5.3.2 Mycorrhiza 117
7.5.3.3 Chemical Control 117
7.5.3.4 Breeding 117
7.5.3.5 Cultural Control 117
7.6 Future Prospects 118
Acknowledgments 118
References 118
8 Origins and Patterns of Vanilla Cultivation in Tropical America (1500–1900): No Support for an Independent Domestication of Vanilla in South America 121
Pesach Lubinsky, Gustavo A. Romero‐González, Sylvia M. Heredia, and Stephanie Zabel
8.1 Introduction 121
8.1.1 I. Pre‐Cultivation, ca. 1500–1750s 127
8.1.2 II. Papantla Monopoly, 1760s–1840s 131
8.1.3 III. The Vanilla Revolution, 1850s–1900, “… and we’ve never looked back” 135
8.2 The Vanilla Necklace 136
8.3 Summary 138
Acknowledgments 139
References 139
9 Vanilla Production in Australia 147
Richard Exley
9.1 Introduction 147
9.2 History 147
9.3 Species 148
9.4 Climatic Regions of Australia Suitable for Vanilla 148
9.5 Climatic Conditions in the Vanilla Growing Regions 149
9.6 Soil and Nutrients 150
9.7 Watering 150
9.8 Fertilizing 150
9.9 Propagation 150
9.10 Support 151
9.11 Light/Shade 152
9.12 Spacing 153
9.13 Training 154
9.14 Flowering, Fruit Set, Growth, and Maturation 154
9.14.1 Flowering 154
9.14.2 Fruit Set (Pollination) 154
9.14.3 Growth and Maturation 155
9.15 Harvesting 155
9.16 Curing 155
9.16.1 Overview 155
References 156
10 Vanilla in Dutch Greenhouses: A Discovery – From Research to Production 157
Filip van Noort
10.1 Introduction 157
10.1.1 Start of Research 157
10.2 Review of Literature 157
10.3 Flowering 159
10.3.1 Greenhouse 160
10.3.2 Sustainability 160
10.4 Varieties 161
10.5 Propagation 161
10.5.1 Cultivation 161
10.5.2 Growing Systems 162
10.6 Feasibility and Conclusions 162
References 163
11 Establishing Vanilla Production and a Vanilla Breeding Program in the Southern United States 165
Alan H. Chambers
11.1 Introduction 165
11.2 Southern Florida Climate 165
11.2.1 Average Temperatures 166
11.2.2 Average Rainfall 166
11.2.3 Average Solar Radiation 166
11.2.4 Major Weather Events 168
11.3 Native and Naturalized Vanilla Species of South Florida 169
11.3.1 V. dilloniana 169
11.3.2 V. mexicana 169
11.3.3 V. barbellata 169
11.3.4 V. phaeantha 169
11.3.5 V. planifolia 171
11.4 Establishing Vanilla Production in Southern Florida 173
11.4.1 Shade House Cultivation 173
11.4.2 Tutor Tree Cultivation 173
11.4.3 Substrate Considerations 174
11.4.4 Local Economics and Niche Opportunities 174
11.5 Vanilla Breeding 175
11.5.1 Establishing a Vanilla Breeding Program in the United States 175
11.5.2 Acquiring Diverse Vanilla Accessions 176
11.5.3 Creating Diversity in Vanilla 176
11.5.4 Identifying the Primary Gene Pool 177
11.5.5 Target Traits 177
11.5.6 A Case for a Publically Available Vanilla Genome 178
11.6 Conclusions 178
References 178
12 In vitro Propagation of Vanilla 181
Rebeca Alicia Menchaca García
12.1 Methods 182
12.1.1 In vitro Germination 182
12.1.2 Tissue Culture 182
12.2 Results and Discussion 183
12.2.1 Germination 183
12.2.2 Seed Maturity 183
12.2.3 Time for Germination 183
12.2.4 Scarification 183
12.2.5 Tissue Culture 183
12.2.6 Hybridization 184
12.2.7 In vitro Germplasm Bank 185
12.2.8 Repatriation and Recovery of Mexican Species 185
12.2.9 Method of Ex vitro Adaptation 186
12.2.10 Greenhouse Collection 186
12.2.11 Social Linkage 186
12.2.12 Human Resource Training and International Interaction 187
12.3 Conclusions 187
References 188
13 Curing of Vanilla 191
Chaim Frenkel, Arvind S. Ranadive, Javier Tochihuitl Vázquez, and Daphna Havkin‐Frenkel
13.1 Introduction 191
13.2 Botany of the Vanilla Pod 192
13.2.1 Two Fruit Regions 192
13.2.2 Fruit Components 192
13.2.3 Fruit Anatomy 193
13.2.4 Pollination Initiates Ovary and Fruit Development 193
13.2.5 Mature Fruit 194
13.3 On‐the‐vine Curing Process in a Vanilla Pod 195
13.4 Off‐the‐vine Curing Process of Vanilla Beans 196
13.4.1 Purpose of Curing 198
13.4.2 Traditional Methods of Curing 199
13.4.2.1 Killing 199
13.4.2.2 Sweating 200
13.4.2.3 Drying and Conditioning 201
13.5 Activity of Hydrolytic Enzymes Occurring in a Curing Vanilla Pod 202
13.5.1 Protease Activity 202
13.5.2 Cell Wall Hydrolyzing Enzymes 204
13.5.3 Glycosyl Hydrolases 204
13.6 Activity of Oxidative Enzymes Occurring in a Curing Vanilla Pod 209
13.7 Vanilla Products 212
13.8 Summary and Conclusions 212
13.9 Addendum: Commercial Curing Methods of Green Vanilla Bean 213
13.9.1 Traditional Methods 213
13.9.1.1 Mexican Curing Method 213
13.9.1.2 The Bourbon Curing Method 214
13.9.1.3 The Tahitian Curing Method 214
13.9.1.4 Other Traditional Curing Methods 214
13.9.1.5 Indonesian Curing of Vanilla Bean 215
13.9.2 Refinement of Traditional Curing Methods 215
13.9.3 Novel Curing Methods 215
References 216
14 Fair Trade – The Future of Vanilla? 223
Richard J. Brownell Jr
14.1 The Crisis 223
14.2 The Farmer 224
14.3 Fast Forward 226
14.4 Fair Trade – Background 226
14.4.1 Fair Trade Principles 227
14.4.2 Vanilla and Fair Trade 228
14.5 Commodity Cycles 229
14.6 Issues 230
14.6.1 The Price Differential 230
14.6.2 Vanilla Quality 231
14.6.3 Limited Availability 231
14.6.4 Ensuring that Farmers are Paid the FT Price 232
14.6.5 Consumer Acceptance 232
14.7 Conclusions 233
14.7.1 Update 2017 – Fair Trade Vanilla: Today 233
14.7.2 Update 2017 – Fair Trade Vanilla: The Future 234
Part II Authentication and Flavor Analysis 237
15 Quality Control of Vanilla Beans and Extracts 239
Arvind S. Ranadive
15.1 Introduction 239
15.2 Quality Control of Vanilla Beans 239
15.2.1 Grading of Vanilla Beans 240
15.2.1.1 Vanilla Grading in Mexico 241
15.2.1.2 Vanilla Grading in Madagascar 241
15.2.1.3 Vanilla Grading in Indonesia 241
15.2.1.4 Vanilla Grading in Uganda 241
15.2.1.5 Vanilla Grading in Tahiti 242
15.2.2 Aroma of Vanilla Beans 243
15.2.3 Moisture Content of Vanilla Beans 246
15.2.4 Vanillin Content 246
15.2.4.1 Vanilla Bean Extraction 247
15.2.4.2 Vanillin Determination 247
15.2.4.3 Vanillin Determination in Vanilla Extracts and Other Vanilla Products 248
15.2.4.4 HPLC Method 248
15.2.5 Microbial Contaminant Limits 249
15.3 Quality Control of Commercial Vanilla Products 249
15.3.1 Definition of Vanilla Products 249
15.3.1.1 Vanilla Extracts 249
15.3.1.2 Vanilla Flavoring 250
15.3.1.3 Vanilla‐Vanillin Extract and Flavoring 250
15.3.1.4 Concentrated Vanilla Extract and Flavoring 250
15.3.1.5 Vanilla Oleoresin 250
15.3.1.6 Vanilla Absolute 250
15.3.1.7 Vanilla Powder And Vanilla‐Vanillin Powder 251
15.3.1.8 Vanilla Tincture for Perfumery 251
15.3.2 Vanilla Extract Quality Parameters 251
15.3.2.1 Appearance: Color and Clarity 251
15.3.2.2 Flavor 251
15.3.2.3 Soluble Solids Content 252
15.3.2.4 Vanillin Content 252
15.3.2.5 Organic Acids – (Wichmann) Lead Number 253
15.3.2.6 Resin Content 253
15.3.2.7 Microbial Limits 253
15.4 Determination of Authenticity of Vanilla Extracts 254
15.4.1 Guidelines for Determination of Authenticity 254
15.4.1.1 Evaluation of the Ratios Between Specific Components 255
15.4.1.2 Isotope‐ratios Mass Spectrometry 255
15.4.1.3 Site‐specific Quantitative Deuterium NmR 255
15.4.2 Other Methods to Determine Authenticity 256
15.4.2.1 Stable Isotope Ratio Analysis (SIRA) 256
15.4.2.2 SNIF‐NMR Technique 258
15.5 Summary 259
Acknowledgment 259
References 259
16 Flavor, Quality, and Authentication 261
Patrick G. Hoffman and Charles M. Zapf
16.1 Introduction 261
16.2 Vanilla Flavor Analyses 262
16.3 Biochemistry and Genetic Research on Vanilla 266
16.4 Vanilla Quality and Authentication Analyses 267
16.4.1 Liquid Chromatographic Methods 268
16.4.2 Isotopic Techniques 272
16.4.3 Radiometric and Stable Isotope Ratio Analysis 272
16.4.4 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) 274
16.4.5 Isotopic Techniques Summary 274
16.4.6 Integrated and Miscellaneous Methodologies 275
16.5 Conclusion 277
References 279
17 Volatile Compounds in Vanilla 285
Stephen Toth, Keun Joong Lee, Daphna Havkin‐Frenkel, Faith C. Belanger, and Thomas G. Hartman
17.1 Lexicon of Vanilla Aroma/Flavor Descriptors 285
References 345
18 A Comprehensive Study of Composition and Evaluation of Vanilla Extracts in US Retail Stores 349
Daphna Havkin‐Frenkel, Faith C. Belanger, Debra Y.J. Booth, Kathryn E. Galasso, Francis P. Tangel, and Carlos Javier Hernández Gayosso
18.1 History 349
18.2 Uses of Vanilla in the Industry 349
18.2.1 Household Products 350
18.2.2 Dairy Products 350
18.2.3 Ice Cream (Frozen Dairy Products) 350
18.2.4 Yogurt 350
18.2.5 Puddings 351
18.2.6 Chocolate 351
18.2.7 Confections 351
18.2.8 Baked Goods 351
18.2.9 Beverages 351
18.2.10 Pet Products 352
18.2.11 Pharmaceutical Products 352
18.2.12 Oral Care 352
18.2.13 Perfume 352
18.2.14 Toys 352
18.3 Major US Vanilla Companies 353
18.4 Introduction to the Study 353
18.5 Materials and Methods 353
18.6 Results and Discussion 354
18.6.1 Labeling of Retail Vanilla Extracts 354
18.6.2 Flavor Components in the Retail Vanilla Extracts 359
18.6.3 Total Phenol Content of the Retail Vanilla Extracts 363
18.7 Conclusion and Recommendation 363
References 365
19 Vanilla in Perfumery and Beverage Flavors 367
Felix Buccellato
19.1 Earliest Recorded Use of Vanilla 367
Reference 373
Part III Biology of Vanilla 375
20 Vanilla Phylogeny and Classification 377
Kenneth M. Cameron
20.1 Vanilloideae Among Orchids 381
20.2 Diversity Within Vanilloideae 381
20.2.1 Tribe Pogonieae 382
20.2.2 Tribe Vanilleae 383
20.3 Origins and Age of Vanilloideae 384
20.4 Diversity Within Vanilla 385
20.5 Systematic Conclusions and Implications 388
References 389
21 Molecular Analysis of a Vanilla Hybrid Cultivated in Costa Rica 391
Faith C. Belanger and Daphna Havkin‐Frenkel
21.1 Methods 392
21.1.1 PCR Amplification, Cloning, and DNA Sequencing 392
21.1.2 Phylogenetic Analysis 393
21.1.3 Preparation of Vanilla Extracts 393
21.2 Results and Discussion 393
References 399
22 Root Cause: Mycorrhizal Fungi of Vanilla and Prospects for Biological Control of Root Rots 403
Paul Bayman, María del Carmen A. Gonzalez‐Chávez, Ana T. Mosquera‐Espinosa, and Andrea Porras‐Alfaro
22.1 Introduction 403
22.1.1 Orchids and Their Mycorrhiza 403
22.1.2 The Fungi: Rhizoctonia and Related Taxa 404
22.2 Phylogenetic Diversity of Mycorrhizal Fungi of Vanilla 406
22.2.1 Methods 406
22.2.2 Diversity of Mycorrhizal Fungi 408
22.2.3 Fusarium 409
22.2.4 Distribution of Mycorrhiza and Colonization of Roots 409
22.2.5 Roots in Soil vs. Roots on Bark 410
22.2.6 Differences in Mycorrhiza Among Agrosystems 410
22.2.7 Limitations of Methods and Sources of Bias 410
22.3 Mycorrhizal Fungi of Vanilla Stimulate Seed Germination and Seedling Growth 411
22.3.1 Seedling Germination Experiments 411
22.3.2 Seedling Growth and Survival Experiments 411
22.4 Can Mycorrhizal Fungi Protect Vanilla Plants from Pathogens? 414
22.4.1 Biocontrol of Plant Diseases Using Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi 414
22.4.2 Biocontrol of Plant Diseases Using Ceratobasidium 415
22.4.3 Are Rhizoctonia Strains Used for Biocontrol also Potential Pathogens? 416
22.4.4 Fusarium Species as Potential Biocontrol Agents to Protect Vanilla from Fusarium oxysporum Root Rots 417
22.5 Conclusions 417
References 418
23 Enzymes Characterized From Vanilla 423
Andrzej Podstolski
23.1 L‐Phenylalanine Ammonia‐Lyse (Pal) and Cinnamate‐4‐Hydroxylase (C4h) 423
23.2 Chain-shortening Enzymes 424
23.3 4‐Coumaric Acid 3‐Hydroxylase (C3H) 427
23.4 O‐Methyltransferase (OMT) 428
23.5 Benzyl Alcohol Dehydrogenase (Bad) 428
23.6 Glycosyltransferases (GTS) 429
23.7 β‐Glycosyl Hydrolases and Curing 430
References 431
24 Vanillin Biosynthesis – Still not as Simple as it Seems? 435
Richard A. Dixon
24.1 Introduction 435
24.2 Multiple Pathways to Vanillin Based on Biochemistry? 438
24.3 Elucidation of Vanillin Biosynthesis via Molecular Biology? 440
References 442
25 Vanilla planifolia – The Source of the Unexpected Discovery of a New Lignin 447
Fang Chen and Richard A. Dixon
25.1 Introduction 447
25.2 Identification of C‐lignin in V. planifolia 449
25.3 Identification of Genes Potentially Involved in Lignin and Vanillin Biosynthesis 451
25.4 C‐Lignin Biosynthesis in Other Plants 452
25.5 Commercial Value of C‐Lignin as a Novel Natural Polymer 453
References 454
Part IV Biotechnological Production of Vanillin 457
26 Biotechnology of Vanillin: Vanillin from Microbial Sources 459
Ivica Labuda
26.1 Introduction 459
26.1.1 Why? 459
26.1.2 How? 460
26.2 Substrates 460
26.2.1 Ferulic Acid (4‐Hydroxy 3‐Methoxy Cinnamic Acid) 460
26.2.1.1 Non‐β‐oxidative Deacetylation (CoA‐dependent) 462
26.2.1.2 β‐Oxidative Deacetylation (CoA‐Dependent) 463
26.2.1.3 Non‐Oxidative Decarboxylation 464
26.2.1.4 CoA‐Independent Deacetylation 465
26.2.1.5 Side‐Chain Reductive Pathway 466
26.2.2 Eugenol and Isoeugenol 467
26.2.3 Lignin 468
26.2.4 Sugars 469
26.3 Microorganisms 470
26.3.1 Bacteria 470
26.3.1.1 Pseudomonas 470
26.3.1.2 Streptomyces 470
26.3.1.3 Bacillus 471
26.3.1.4 Corynebacterium 472
26.3.1.5 Escherichia coli 472
26.3.1.6 Amycolatopsis sp. 473
26.3.1.7 Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) 473
26.3.1.8 Clostridium 474
26.3.2 Fungi and Yeasts 474
26.4 Processes 477
26.4.1 Direct Bioconversion Process 477
26.4.2 Bi‐Phasic Fermentation 480
26.4.3 Mixed Culture Fermentation 480
26.4.4 Continuous Fermentation with Immobilized Cells 481
26.4.5 Enzymes 481
26.4.6 Cofactors 482
26.5 Downstream Processing and Recovery 482
26.6 Conclusions 482
References 483
Index 489
