Description
Book SynopsisTable of ContentsList of Contributors xvii
Preface xxv
Part I Global Scenario of Remediation and Combined Clean Biofuel Production 1
1 Global Remediation Industry and Trends 3
Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad, Lander de Jesus Alves and Fabio Carvalho Nunes
1.1 Introduction 3
1.1.1 Rise of Phytoremediation 4
1.1.2 The Phytoremediation Industry 5
1.1.3 The Key Players in Global Remediation and Phytoremediation 10
1.1.3.1 Markets by Sector 11
1.1.3.2 Markets by Application 11
1.1.3.3 Sizes of Market Sectors Potentially Available to Phytoremediation 11
1.2 Global 12
1.3 Mining in Latin America and Phytoremediation Possibilities 16
Acknowledgements 23
References 23
2 Sustainable Valorization of Biomass: From Assisted Phytoremediation to Green Energy Production 29
Martina Grifoni, Francesca Pedron, Meri Barbafieri, Irene Rosellini, Gianniantonio Petruzzelli and Elisabetta Franchi
2.1 Introduction 29
2.2 Bioenergy: The Role of Biomass 30
2.3 Assisted Phytoremediation: Valorization of Biomass 33
2.4 Assisted Phytoremediation-Bioenergy: An Integrated Approach 37
2.5 Conclusions 43
References 44
Part II Biochar-Based Soil and Water Remediation 53
3 Biochar – Production, Properties, and Service to Environmental Protection against Toxic Metals 55
Monika Gałwa-Widera
3.1 Introduction 55
3.2 How to Produce Biochar 55
3.3 Biochar Properties 57
3.4 Biochar in the Service of Environmental Protection 59
3.5 Soil Characteristics 59
3.6 Environmental Hazards Caused by Heavy Metals 60
3.7 Characteristics of Selected Heavy Metals 62
3.8 Zinc 64
3.9 Copper 64
3.10 Lead 65
3.11 Cadmium 66
3.12 Soil Pollution 67
3.13 What is Remediation and What is it for? 68
3.14 Improving Soil Properties 69
3.15 Removal of Impurities 69
3.16 The Addition of Biochar to Contaminated Soils may be Such a Solution 70
3.17 Summary 72
References 73
4 Biochar-based Water Treatment Systems for Clean Water Provision 77
Dwiwahju Sasongko, David Gunawan and Antonius Indarto
4.1 Introduction 77
4.2 Synthesis of Biochar 77
4.2.1 Pyrolysis Process 77
4.2.2 Pyrolysis Technology 78
4.3 Biochar Properties 80
4.3.1 Biochar Surface Chemistry 80
4.3.2 Pyrolysis Effect on Chemical Properties of Biochar 81
4.3.3 Pyrolysis Effect on Physical Properties of Biochar 81
4.4 Mechanism of Adsorption 82
4.4.1 Heavy Metal Removal Mechanism 82
4.4.2 Organic Contaminants Removal Mechanism 82
4.4.3 Pathogenic Organism Removal Mechanism 83
4.5 Factors Affecting Adsorption of Contaminants on Biochar 84
4.5.1 Biochar Properties 84
4.5.2 Post Treatment or Modification 85
4.5.3 Solution pH 87
4.5.4 Co-existed Ions 87
4.5.5 Dosage of Adsorbents 87
4.5.6 Temperature 87
4.5.7 Contact Time 87
4.5.8 Initial Concentration of Pollutants 88
4.6 Biochar-Based Water Treatment Systems 88
4.6.1 Biochar Supply 88
4.6.2 Biochar Use 89
4.6.3 Regeneration 90
4.6.3.1 Thermal Regeneration 90
4.6.3.2 Solvent Regeneration 93
4.6.3.3 Microwave Irradiation Regeneration 94
4.6.4 Supercritical Fluid Regeneration 94
4.6.5 Sustainability of Biochar Utilization 95
References 95
5 Biochar for Wastewater Treatment 103
Anna Kwarciak-Kozłowska and Renata Włodarczyk
5.1 Biochar Production and Its Characteristics 103
5.2 Modification of Biochar 105
5.3 Comparison of Biochar with Activated Carbon 105
5.4 Biochar Adsorption Mechanism 106
5.5 Adsorption Kinetics of Aqueous-Phase Organic Compounds 108
5.6 Influence of pH, Temperature, and Biochar Dose on the Adsorption Process 108
5.7 Biochar Technology in Wastewater Treatment 110
5.8 Summary 112
Acknowledgment 112
References 112
6 Biochar for Bioremediation of Toxic Metals 119
Renata Włodarczyk and Anna Kwarciak-Kozłowska
6.1 The Idea of Using Biochar with the Assumption of Closed Circulation 119
6.2 The Role of Biochar in Soil - General Information 120
6.3 Biochar as a Sorbent – Physical and Structural Composition 121
6.4 The Role of Biochar in Removing Heavy Metals from Soil 123
6.5 Utilization of Selected Heavy Metals from Soil 123
6.6 Mechanism of Heavy Metals-Biochar 124
6.7 Summary 126
Acknowledgment 126
References 127
7 Biochar Assisted Remediation of Toxic Metals and Metalloids 131
Shalini Dhiman, Mohd Ibrahim, Kamini Devi, Neerja Sharma, Nitika Kapoor, Ravinderjit Kaur, Nandni Sharma, Raman Tikoria, Puja Ohri, Bilal Ahmad Mir and Renu Bhardwaj
7.1 Introduction 131
7.2 Biochar and its Remarkable Physical Chemical and Biological Properties 132
7.2.1 Physical Properties of Biochar 132
7.2.1.1 Density and Porosity 132
7.2.1.2 Surface Area of Biochar 132
7.2.1.3 Pore Volume and Pore Size Distribution 132
7.2.1.4 Water Holding Capacity and Hydrophobicity 132
7.2.1.5 Mechanical Stability 133
7.2.2 Chemical Properties 133
7.2.2.1 Atomic Ratios 133
7.2.2.2 Elemental Composition 133
7.2.2.3 Energy Content 133
7.2.2.4 Fixed Carbon and Volatile Matter 134
7.2.2.5 Presence of Functional Groups 134
7.2.2.6 pH of Biochar 134
7.2.2.7 Cation Exchange Capacity 134
7.2.3 Biological Properties of Biochar 134
7.2.3.1 Biochar as a Habitat for Soil Microorganisms 134
7.2.3.2 Biochar as a Substrate for the Soil Biota 135
7.3 Heavy Metal Pollutants 135
7.4 Interactions between Biochar and Heavy Metal 136
7.4.1 Types of Interactions Occurs between Biochar and Heavy Metals 136
7.4.1.1 Direct Interaction 136
7.4.1.2 Electrostatic Attractions 136
7.4.1.3 Ion Exchange 137
7.4.1.4 Complexation 137
7.4.1.5 Precipitation 137
7.4.1.6 Sorption 137
7.4.1.7 Indirect Interactions 137
7.4.1.8 Biochar Metal Interactions 138
7.5 Biochar as a Bioremediator 138
7.5.1 Bioremediation of Heavy Metals Pollutant by the Use of Microorganism and Biochar 139
7.5.2 Bioremediation of Heavy Metal Pollutants by the Use of Plants and Biochar 140
7.5.3 Bioremediation of Heavy Metals Pollutant through the Combination of Biochar, Plant, and Microorganism 143
7.6 Application of Biochar in Bioremediation of Mining Area 143
7.6.1 Application of Biochar in Bioremediation of Acid Mine Wastes 146
7.6.2 Alkaline Tailing Soils 148
7.7 Limitation of Biochar Amended Bioremediation 148
7.7.1 Phytoextraction of Arsenic 149
7.7.2 Phytoremediation of Sewage Sludge 150
7.8 Conclusion 150
References 150
8 Use of Biochar as an Amendment for Remediation of Heavy Metal-Contaminated Soils 163
Subodh Kumar Maiti and Dipita Ghosh
8.1 Introduction 163
8.2 Biochar Production Conditions 164
8.3 Modification to Improve Remediation Potential of Biochar 165
8.4 Mechanism of Metal Immobilization by Biochar 169
8.4.1 Direct Biochar–Heavy Metal Interaction 170
8.4.1.1 Electrostatic Attraction 170
8.4.1.2 Ion Exchange 170
8.4.1.3 Complexation 170
8.4.1.4 Precipitation 170
8.4.2 Indirect Biochar–Heavy Metals–Soils Interactions 171
8.4.2.1 Impact on Soil pH, CEC, and Organic Carbon Content, thus Metal Mobility 171
8.4.2.2 Impacts on Soil Mineral Composition and Metal Mobility by Biochar Application 171
8.5 Immobilization of Heavy Metals by Biochar 171
8.6 Application of Biochar for Immobilization of Heavy Metals and Enhancement of Plant Growth 172
8.7 Conclusions 173
References 173
9 Biochars for Remediation of Recalcitrant Soils to Enhance Agronomic Performance 179
Anna Grobelak and Marta Jaskulak
9.1 Introduction 179
9.2 Biochar Properties 179
9.2.1 Production 179
9.2.2 Properties 180
9.3 Application and Impact of Biochar on Soils 183
9.3.1 Biochar in Soil Carbon Sequestration 184
9.3.2 Influence on Soil Physical and Chemical Properties 184
9.3.3 Influence on Microbial Activity and Soil Biota 186
9.4 Conclusions 186
Acknowledgment 186
References 187
10 Biochar Amendment Improves Crop Production in Problematic Soils 189
Bhupinder Dhir
10.1 Introduction 189
10.2 Roles of Biochar in Soil Improvement 189
10.2.1 Physical Characteristics 190
10.2.2 Chemical Properties 190
10.2.3 Biological Indices 191
10.3 Other Roles of Biochar 192
10.4 Agricultural Productivity in Biochar Amended Soil 192
10.4.1 Advantages of Using Biochar as a Soil Supplement 195
10.5 Reclamation of Degraded Soils Using Biochar 196
10.6 Conclusions 197
References 198
Part III Organic Amendments Use in Remediation 205
11 Use of Organic Amendments in Phytoremediation of Metal-Contaminated Soils: Prospects and Challenges 207
Galina Koptsik, Graeme Spiers, Sergey Koptsik and Peter Beckett
11.1 Agricultural Organic Waste 209
11.2 Forestry By-Products 209
11.3 Composts 212
11.4 Sewage Sludge/Biosolids 217
11.5 Humic Substances 220
11.6 Biochar 222
11.7 Constructed Organic-Derived Soils 223
11.8 Directions for Future Research 224
Acknowledgments 226
References 226
12 Rice Husk and Wood Derived Charcoal for Remediation of Metal Contaminated Soil 235
Boda Ravi Kiran and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
12.1 Introduction 235
12.2 Heavy Metal Contamination in Soils 235
12.3 Rice Husk Ash (RHA) – Production, Characteristics, and Application 236
12.3.1 Utilization of Rice Husk Ash as Soil Amendment and Metal Removal 237
12.4 Charcoal – Production and Applications 239
12.4.1 Charcoal as Amendment and Metal Removal 245
12.5 Conclusion 256
References 256
13 Enhanced Composting Using Woody Biomass and Its Application in Wasteland Reclamation 267
Zeba Usmani, Tiit Lukk, Eve-Ly Ojangu, Hegne Pupart, Kairit Zovo and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
13.1 Introduction 267
13.2 Composting Process 270
13.3 Types of Composting 271
13.4 Woody Biomass Waste as Co-composting Material 271
13.4.1 Usage of Woody Biochar in Composting 272
13.4.2 Woody Biochar-Microbial Consortia 272
13.4.3 Usage of Wood Ash in Composting 274
13.4.4 Usage of Wood Derived Materials in Composting 274
13.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Composting Woody Biomass 275
13.6 Application of Woody Biomass Compost in Restoration of Wastelands 276
13.7 Conclusion 277
Acknowledgment 277
References 277
14 Sewage Sludge as Soil Conditioner and Fertilizer 283
Krzysztof Fijałkowski and Anna Kwarciak-Kozłowska
14.1 Introduction 283
14.2 Sewage Sludge from Wastewater Treatment Plants 283
14.2.1 Soil Remediation Practices 284
14.2.2 Sewage Sludge in the Remediation of Degraded Soils 286
14.2.2.1 Sewage Sludge as a Source of NPK 286
14.2.3 Substrates Produced or Based on Sewage Sludge–Biosolids 287
14.2.4 Biosolids as Fertility Restorer and Conditioner 287
14.2.5 Impact of Sewage Sludge and Biosolids on Soil Microorganisms 290
14.2.6 Sewage Sludge Amendments in Relation to CO2 Sequestration 292
14.2.7 Conclusion 292
References 292
15 Sustainable Soil Remediation Using Organic Amendments 299
Marta Jaskulak and Anna Grobelak
15.1 Introduction 299
15.2 Organic Amendments for Soil Remediation 300
15.2.1 Composts 300
15.2.2 Animal Manures and Biosolids 300
15.3 Impact of Organic Amendments on Soils 303
15.3.1 Influence on Soil Physical Properties 303
15.3.2 Influence on Microbial Activities and Soil Biota 305
15.3.3 Influence of the Content of Nitrogen and Phosphorus 306
15.4 Potential Risks of the Use of Organic Amendments 307
15.5 Conclusions 308
References 309
Part IV Advanced Technologies for Remediation of Inorganics and Organics 313
16 Biosurfactant-Assisted Bioremediation of Crude Oil/Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contaminated Soil 315
Jeevanandam Vaishnavi, Punniyakotti Parthipan, Arumugam Arul Prakash, Kuppusamy Sathishkumar and Aruliah Rajasekar
16.1 Introduction 315
16.2 Surfactants and Biosurfactants 316
16.3 Microbial Surfactants 316
16.4 Types of Biosurfactants 318
16.4.1 Glycolipid Biosurfactants 318
16.4.1.1 Rhamnolipids 318
16.4.1.2 Trehalose 318
16.4.1.3 Sophorolipid 318
16.4.2 Phospholipids Biosurfactant 319
16.4.3 Lipopeptides and Lipoproteins 319
16.4.4 Fatty Acid 320
16.4.5 Polymeric and Particulate Biosurfactant 320
16.5 Optimization of Biosurfactants 320
16.6 Biosurfactant in Bioremediation 320
16.6.1 Glycolipids Mediated Crude Oil Remediation 321
16.6.2 Lipopeptide Mediated Crude Oil/Hydrocarbons Degradation 323
16.6.3 Bioemulsifiers Mediated Crude Oil/Hydrocarbons Degradation 323
16.7 Challenges and Future Prospectives 324
16.8 Conclusion 324
References 324
17 Advanced Technologies for the Remediation of Pesticide-Contaminated Soils 331
Palak Bakshi, Arun Dev Singh, Jaspreet Kour, Sadaf Jan, Mohd Ibrahim, Bilal Ahmad Mir and Renu Bhardwaj
17.1 Introduction 331
17.2 Consumption and Need for Removal 332
17.2.1 Worldwide Consumption of Pesticide 333
17.2.2 Production and Usage of Pesticide in India 333
17.2.3 Need for Removal 333
17.3 Remediation Technologies for Pesticidal Contamination 335
17.3.1 Physico–Chemical Remediation 335
17.3.1.1 Adsorption 335
17.3.1.2 Oxidation–Reduction 336
17.3.1.3 Catalytic Degradation 338
17.3.1.4 Nano Technology 338
17.3.2 Biological Remediation 340
17.3.2.1 Role of Plants 340
17.3.2.2 Role of Microflora 341
17.4 Conclusion 342
References 344
18 Enzymes Assistance in Remediation of Contaminants and Pollutants 355
Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
18.1 Introduction 355
18.2 Cyanide Degradation 356
18.3 Rhizosphere 360
18.3.1 Degradation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons 360
18.3.2 Degradation of Pesticides 361
Acknowledgments 383
References 383
19 Thiol Assisted Metal Tolerance in Plants 389
Pooja Sharma, Palak Bakshi, Dhriti Kapoor, Priya Arora, Jaspreet Kour, Rupinder Kaur, Ashutosh Sharma, Bilal Ahmad Mir and Renu Bhardwaj
19.1 Introduction 389
19.2 Sulfur Metabolism in Plants 390
19.3 Thiols Induced Metal Tolerance in Plants 390
19.3.1 Role of Metal Transporters 391
19.3.2 Role of Thioredoxins and Glutaredoxins 392
19.3.3 Role of Metallothioneins 392
19.3.4 Role of Phytochelatins in Heavy Metal Stress Mitigation 392
19.3.4.1 Heavy Metal Detoxification Mechanism 393
19.3.5 Role of Glutathione in Heavy Metal Stress Mitigation 394
19.4 Conclusion 396
References 397
20 Biological Remediation of Selenium in Soil and Water 403
Siddhartha Narayan Borah, Suparna Sen, Hemen Sarma and Kannan Pakshirajan
20.1 Introduction 403
20.2 Sources of Selenium 403
20.2.1 Soil 404
20.2.2 Water 404
20.2.3 Air 404
20.3 Significance in Human Health 405
20.4 Biological Remediation Processes 407
20.4.1 Phytoremediation 407
20.4.1.1 Phytoextraction 407
20.4.1.2 Phytovolatilization 408
20.4.1.3 Rhizofiltration 408
20.4.2 Bioremediation 409
20.4.2.1 Planktonic Cells of Axenic Bacterial Culture 409
20.4.2.2 Biofilm of Axenic Bacterial Culture 410
20.4.2.3 Microbial Consortia 410
20.4.3 Bioamendment with Chelating Agents and Organic Matter 411
20.4.4 Biosorption 412
20.5 Conclusion 412
References 413
Part V Microbe and Plant Assisted Remediation of Inorganics and Organics 423
21 Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria for Soil Sustainability 425
Raffia Siddique, Alvina Gul, Munir Ozturk and Volkan Altay
21.1 Introduction 425
21.2 Biofertilizer 426
21.2.1 PSM Requirement in Plants 426
21.2.2 Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms (PSM) 426
21.2.3 Application of PSB Inoculants 427
21.3 Mechanism of P Solubilization 427
21.3.1 Lowering of Soil pH 427
21.3.2 Chelation 428
21.3.3 Mineralization 429
21.4 PSB Help Plant Growth 429
21.5 Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB) 430
21.5.1 Mechanism of Action of PSB 431
21.6 Soil Sustainability with PSB 431
References 432
22 Microbe and Plant-Assisted Remediation of Organic Xenobiotics 437
A.P. Pinto, M.E. Lopes, A. Dordio and J.E.F. Castanheiro
22.1 Introduction 437
22.2 Impact of PAHs on Environment 439
22.3 PAHs in Soil and Sediments 441
22.4 Molecular Weight and Aqueous Solubility 442
22.5 Plant Assisted Remediation of PAHs 443
22.5.1 Phytoremediation 445
22.5.1.1 Phytoextraction 447
22.5.1.2 Phytostabilization 448
22.5.1.3 Phytovolatilization 448
22.5.1.4 Phytodegradation 448
22.5.1.5 Rhizodegradation 449
22.6 Plant and Microbe Assisted Remediation – Synergistic Approaches 449
22.7 Plant–Endophyte Partnership in Phytoremediation 452
22.7.1 Endophyte Colonization and Survival 453
22.7.2 Beneficial Mutualistic Interactions Between Endophytes and Their Hosts 454
22.7.2.1 Nutrient Bioavailability 457
22.7.2.2 Modulation and Synthesis of Phytohormones 458
22.7.2.3 Defense Mechanisms against Phytopathogens 459
22.7.3 Biosurfactants and Their Roles in Phytoremediation 459
22.8 Conclusions 461
References 461
23 Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) Assisted Phytoremediation of Inorganic and Organic Contaminants Including Amelioration of Perturbed Marginal Soils 477
Elisabetta Franchi and Danilo Fusini
23.1 Introduction 477
23.2 Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR): Features and Mechanisms 478
23.2.1 Auxins, Cytokinins, Gibberellins 479
23.2.2 Siderophores 480
23.2.3 ACC Deaminase 480
23.2.4 Phosphate Solubilization 481
23.2.5 Nitrogen Fixation 482
23.2.6 Indirect Mechanisms 482
23.3 Influence of PGPR on Heavy Metals and Hydrocarbons Remediation 482
23.4 Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria to Face Salinity and Drought in Marginal Soils 486
23.4.1 Survival to Abiotic Stress 486
23.4.2 Affecting the Drought Pressure 487
23.4.3 Improving the Salinity Tolerance 488
23.4.4 Phytodepuration for Water Reclamation 489
23.5 Conclusions 491
References 491
24 Plant and Microbe Association for Degradation of Xenobiotics Focusing Transgenic Plants 501
Pooja Sharma, Palak Bakshi, Kanika Khanna, Jaspreet Kour, Dhriti Kapoor, Arun Dev Singh, Tamanna Bhardwaj, Rupinder Kaur, Ashutosh Sharma and Renu Bhardwaj
24.1 Introduction 501
24.2 Xenobiotics in the Environment 502
24.3 Mechanism of Degradation of Xenobiotics 502
24.4 Plant and Microbe Association for Degradation of Xenobiotics 504
24.5 Transgenic Plants and Microbes for the Remediation of Xenobiotics 506
24.6 Conclusion 509
References 509
25 Azolla Farming for Sustainable Environmental Remediation 517
Abin Sebastian, Palengara Deepa and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
25.1 Introduction 517
25.2 Diversity and Ecological Distribution 519
25.3 Growth Conditions for Optimal Biomass Productivity 521
25.4 Phytoremediation of Water Bodies 523
25.5 Prospects in Sustainable Remediation and Bioeconomy 525
25.6 Outlook 529
References 529
26 Mangrove Assisted Remediation and Ecosystem Services 535
Janaina dos Santos Garcia, Sershen and Marcel Giovanni Costa Franca
26.1 Mangrove Ecosystems 535
26.2 Mangrove Plants 535
26.3 Factors Responsible for Mangrove Degradation and Destruction 536
26.4 Ecosystem Services of Mangroves 537
26.4.1 Mangrove as a Sink of Pollutants 538
26.4.1.1 Heavy Metals 539
26.4.1.2 Heavy Metal Indices 540
26.4.1.3 Association with Other Elements 542
26.4.1.4 Organic Compounds 544
26.4.1.5 Waste Water 545
26.4.1.6 Microorganism Association and Isolation 547
26.5 Methodologies to Use Mangroves for Remediation 550
26.6 Final Comments 550
References 552
Part VI Nanoscience in Remediation 557
27 Nanotechnology Assisted Remediation of Polluted Soils 559
H.A.D.B. Amarasiri and Nadeesh M. Adassooriya
27.1 Soil as Soil of Life 559
27.2 Soil Pollution 561
27.3 Impact of Soil Pollution 561
27.4 Nanopollution 562
27.5 Soil Remediation 563
27.5.1 Conventional Soil Remediation Techniques and Methods 563
27.5.1.1 Bioremediation 563
27.5.1.2 Thermal Desorption 564
27.5.1.3 Surfactant Enhanced Aquifer Remediation 565
27.5.1.4 Pump and Treat 565
27.5.1.5 In-Situ Oxidation 566
27.5.2 Nanotechnology Based Soil Remediation Methods 566
27.5.2.1 Nanomaterials 566
27.5.2.2 Nano-Bioremediation 567
27.5.2.3 Bioremediation with Biogenic Uraninite NPs 567
27.5.2.4 Bioremediation with Engineered Polymeric NPs 567
27.5.2.5 Bioremediation with Single Enzyme NPs 568
27.5.2.6 Zeolites in Soil Remediation with Nanotechnology 568
27.5.2.7 Soil Remediation with Iron Oxide NPs 569
27.5.2.8 Soil Remediation with Nano Scale Zero Valent Iron (nZVI) 570
27.5.2.9 Remediation with Other Metal-based NPs 570
27.5.2.10 Remediation with Phosphate-based NPs 571
27.5.2.11 Soil Remediation with Iron Sulfide NPs 571
27.5.2.12 Carbon Nanotubes (CNT) in Soil Remediation 571
27.5.2.13 Nanoclay in Soil Remediation 572
27.6 Future Scope of Nanotechnology in Soil Remediation 573
References 573
28 Remediation of Wastewater Using Plant Based Nano Materials 583
Wangjam Kabita Devi, Maibam Dhanaraj Meitei and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
28.1 Introduction 583
28.2 Materials and Methods 586
28.2.1 Materials 586
28.2.2 Preparation of Extract 587
28.2.3 Synthesis of AgNPs 587
28.2.4 Characterization of Synthesized AgNPs 587
28.2.5 Catalytic Activity of Synthesized AgNPs 587
28.3 Results and Discussion 588
28.3.1 Energy Dispersive X-Ray (EDX) and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Analysis 590
28.3.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy 591
28.3.3 Fourier Transform Infra-Red Spectroscopy 591
28.3.4 Catalytic Property of AgNPs 593
28.4 Conclusion 595
Acknowledgments 596
References 596
Index 601
