Description
Book SynopsisEnvironmental and Agricultural Microbiology
Uniquely reveals the state-of-the-art microbial research/advances in the environment and agriculture fields
Environmental and Agricultural Microbiology: Applications for Sustainability is divided into two parts which embody chapters on sustenance and life cycles of microorganisms in various environmental conditions, their dispersal, interactions with other inhabited communities, metabolite production, and reclamation. Though books pertaining to soil & agricultural microbiology/environmental biotechnology are available, there is a dearth of comprehensive literature on the behavior of microorganisms in the environmental and agricultural realm.
Part 1 includes bioremediation of agrochemicals by microalgae, detoxification of chromium and other heavy metals by microbial biofilm, microbial biopolymer technology including polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) and polyhydroxybutyrates (PHB), their production, degradability behaviors
Table of Contents
Preface xvii
Part 1: Microbial Bioremediation and Biopolymer Technology 1
1 A Recent Perspective on Bioremediation of Agrochemicals by Microalgae: Aspects and Strategies 3
Prithu Baruah and Neha Chaurasia
1.1 Introduction 4
1.2 Pollution Due to Pesticides 6
1.2.1 Acute Effects 8
1.2.2 Chronic Effects 9
1.3 Microalgal Species Involved in Bioremediation of Pesticides 9
1.4 Strategies for Phycoremediation of Pesticides 13
1.4.1 Involvement of Enzymes in Phycoremediation of Pesticides 13
1.4.2 Use of Genetically Engineered Microalgae 13
1.5 Molecular Aspects of Pesticide Biodegradation by Microalgae 14
1.6 Factor Affecting Phycoremediation of Pesticides 16
1.6.1 Biological Factor 16
1.6.2 Chemical Factor 16
1.6.3 Environment Factor 17
1.7 Benefit and Shortcomings of Phycoremediation 17
1.7.1 Benefits 17
1.7.2 Shortcomings 17
1.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects 18
References 18
2 Microalgal Bioremediation of Toxic Hexavalent Chromium: A Review 25
Pritikrishna Majhi, Satyabrata Nayak and Saubhagya Manjari Samantaray
2.1 Introduction 25
2.1.1 Chromium Cycle 27
2.2 Effects of Hexavalent Chromium Toxicity 27
2.2.1 Toxicity to Microorganisms 27
2.2.2 Toxicity to Plant Body 28
2.2.3 Toxicity to Animals 29
2.3 Chromium Bioremediation by Microalgae 30
2.3.1 Cyanobacteria 30
2.3.2 Green Algae 31
2.3.3 Diatoms 31
2.4 Mechanism Involved in Hexavalent Chromium Reduction in Microalgae 32
2.5 Conclusion 33
References 34
3 Biodetoxification of Heavy Metals Using Biofilm Bacteria 39
Adyasa Barik, Debasish Biswal, A. Arun and Vellaisamy Balasubramanian
3.1 Introduction 40
3.2 Source and Toxicity of Heavy Metal Pollution 41
3.2.1 Non-Essential Heavy Metals 42
3.2.1.1 Arsenic 42
3.2.1.2 Cadmium 43
3.2.1.3 Chromium 43
3.2.1.4 Lead 44
3.2.1.5 Mercury 45
3.2.2 Essential Heavy Metals 45
3.2.2.1 Copper 45
3.2.2.2 Zinc 46
3.2.2.3 Nickel 46
3.3 Biofilm Bacteria 47
3.4 Interaction of Metal and Biofilm Bacteria 47
3.5 Biodetoxification Mechanisms 48
3.5.1 Biosorption 48
3.5.2 Bioleaching 50
3.5.3 Biovolatilization 52
3.5.4 Bioimmobilization 54
3.6 Conclusion 55
References 55
4 Microbial-Derived Polymers and Their Degradability Behavior for Future Prospects 63
Mohammad Asif Ali, Aniruddha Nag and Maninder Singh
4.1 Introduction 63
4.2 Polyamides 65
4.2.1 Bioavailability and Production 66
4.2.2 Biodegradability of Polyamides 66
4.2.3 Degradation of Nylon 4 Under the Soil 67
4.2.4 Fungal Degradation of Nylon 6 and Nylon 66 (Synthetic Polyamide) 67
4.2.5 Itaconic Acid-Based Heterocyclic Polyamide 68
4.2.6 Summary and Future Development 69
4.3 Polylactic Acid 69
4.3.1 Availability and Production 70
4.3.2 Polymerization Method 71
4.3.3 Biodegradability of Polylactic Acid 73
4.3.4 Copolymerization Method 73
4.3.5 Blending Method 73
4.3.6 Nanocomposite Formation 74
4.3.7 Summary 74
4.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 74
4.4.1 Biosynthesis of Polyhydroxyalkanoates 75
4.4.2 Application of PHAs 75
4.4.3 Biodegradability of PHAs 76
4.4.4 Degradability Methods 76
4.4.5 Summary 77
4.5 Conclusion and Future Development 77
References 78
5 A Review on PHAs: The Future Biopolymer 83
S. Mohapatra, K. Vishwakarma, N. C. Joshi, S. Maity, R. Kumar, M. Ramchander, S. Pattnaik and D. P. Samantaray
5.1 Introduction 84
5.2 Green Plastic: Biodegradable Polymer Used as Plastic 85
5.3 Difference Between Biopolymer and Bioplastic 88
5.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 88
5.5 Polyhydroxyalkanoates and Its Applications 89
5.6 Microorganisms Producing PHAs 90
5.7 Advantages 96
5.8 Conclusion and Future Prospective 96
References 96
6 Polyhydroxybutyrate as an Eco-Friendly Alternative of Synthetic Plastics 101
Shikha Sharma, Priyanka Sharma, Vishal Sharma and Bijender Kumar Bajaj
6.1 Introduction 102
6.2 Bioplastics 104
6.3 Bioplastics vs. Petroleum-Based Plastics 106
6.4 Classification of Biodegradable Polymers 107
6.5 PHB-Producing Bacteria 109
6.6 Methods for Detecting PHB Granules 113
6.7 Biochemical Pathway for Synthesis of PHB 114
6.8 Production of PHB 116
6.8.1 Process Optimization for PHB Production 117
6.8.2 Optimization of PHB Production by One Variable at a Time Approach 118
6.8.3 Statistical Approaches for PHB Optimization 120
6.9 Production of PHB Using Genetically Modified Organisms 123
6.10 Characterization of PHB 125
6.11 Various Biochemical Techniques Used for PHB Characterization 126
6.11.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 127
6.11.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry 127
6.11.3 Thermogravimetric Analysis 128
6.11.4 X-Ray Powder Diffraction (XRD) 128
6.11.5 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 128
6.11.6 Microscopic Techniques 129
6.11.7 Elemental Analysis 130
6.11.8 Polarimetry 130
6.11.9 Molecular Size Analysis 130
6.12 Biodegradation of PHB 131
6.13 Application Spectrum of PHB 132
6.14 Conclusion 135
6.15 Future Perspectives 135
Acknowledgements 136
References 136
7 Microbial Synthesis of Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) and Their Applications 151
N.N.N. Anitha and Rajesh K. Srivastava
7.1 Introduction 153
7.2 Conventional Plastics and Its Issues in Utility 156
7.2.1 Synthetic Plastic and Its Accumulation or Degradation Impacts 158
7.3 Bioplastics 159
7.3.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 160
7.3.1.1 Microorganisms in the Production of PHAs 164
7.4 Fermentation for PHAs Production 171
7.5 Downstream Process for PHAs 173
7.6 Conclusions 175
References 176
8 Polyhydroxyalkanoates for Sustainable Smart Packaging of Fruits 183
S. Pati, S. Mohapatra, S. Maity, A. Dash and D. P. Samantaray
8.1 Introduction 183
8.2 Physiological Changes of Fresh Fruits During Ripening and Minimal Processing 185
8.3 Smart Packaging 186
8.4 Biodegradable Polymers for Fruit Packaging 188
8.5 Legal Aspects of Smart Packaging 189
8.6 Pros and Cons of Smart Packaging Using PHAs 189
8.7 Conclusion 190
References 191
9 Biosurfactants Production and Their Commercial Importance 197
Saishree Rath and Rajesh K. Srivastava
9.1 Introduction 198
9.2 Chemical Surfactant Compounds 200
9.2.1 Biosurfactant Compounds 202
9.3 Properties of Biosurfactant Compound 205
9.3.1 Activities of Surface and Interface Location 205
9.3.2 Temperature and pH Tolerance 205
9.3.3 Biodegradability 206
9.3.4 Low Toxicity 206
9.3.5 Emulsion Forming and Breaking 206
9.4 Production of Biosurfactant by Microbial Fermentation 206
9.4.1 Factors Influencing the Production of Biosurfactants 209
9.4.1.1 Environmental Conditions 209
9.4.1.2 Carbon Substrates 210
9.4.1.3 Estimation of Biosurfactants Activity 211
9.5 Advantages, Microorganisms Involved, and Applications of Biosurfactants 211
9.5.1 Advantages of Using Biosurfactants 211
9.5.1.1 Easy Raw Materials for Biosurfactant Biosynthesis 211
9.5.1.2 Low Toxic Levels for Environment 211
9.5.1.3 Best Operation With Surface and Interface Activity 212
9.5.1.4 Good Biodegradability 212
9.5.1.5 Physical Variables 212
9.5.2 Microbial Sources 212
9.5.3 Production of Biosurfactants 213
9.5.3.1 Production of Rhamnolipids 213
9.5.3.2 Regulation of Rhamnolipids Synthesis 214
9.5.3.3 Commercial Use of Biosurfactants 214
9.6 Conclusions 215
References 216
Part 2: Microbes in Sustainable Agriculture and Biotechnological Applications 219
10 Functional Soil Microbes: An Approach Toward Sustainable Horticulture 221
C. Sarathambal, R. Dinesh and V. Srinivasan
10.1 Introduction 221
10.2 Rhizosphere Microbial Diversity 222
10.3 Plant Growth–Promoting Rhizobacteria 223
10.3.1 Nitrogen Fixation 224
10.3.2 Production of Phytohormones 225
10.3.3 Production of Enzymes That can Transform Crop Growth 225
10.3.4 Microbial Antagonism 226
10.3.5 Solubilization of Minerals 226
10.3.6 Siderophore and Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) Production 228
10.3.7 Cyanide (HCN) Production 229
10.3.8 Plant Growth–Promoting Rhizobacteria on Growth of Horticultural Crops 229
10.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 235
References 235
11 Rhizosphere Microbiome: The Next-Generation Crop Improvement Strategy 243
M. Anandaraj, S. Manivannan and P. Umadevi
11.1 Introduction 244
11.2 Rhizosphere Engineering 245
11.3 Omics Tools to Study Rhizosphere Metagenome 246
11.3.1 Metagenomics 246
11.3.2 Metaproteomics 248
11.3.3 Metatranscriptomics 249
11.3.4 Ionomics 250
11.4 As Next-Generation Crop Improvement Strategy 251
11.5 Conclusion 252
References 252
12 Methane Emission and Strategies for Mitigation in Livestock 257
Nibedita Sahoo, Swati Pattnaik, Matrujyoti Pattnaik and Swati Mohapatra
12.1 Introduction 258
12.2 Contribution of Methane from Livestock 259
12.3 Methanogens 259
12.3.1 Rumen Microbial Community 260
12.3.2 Methanogens Found in Rumen 260
12.3.3 Enrichment of Methanogens from Rumen Liquor 261
12.3.4 Screening for Methane Production 261
12.3.5 Isolation of Methanogens 261
12.3.6 Molecular Characterization 261
12.4 Methanogenesis: Methane Production 262
12.4.1 Pathways of Methanogenesis 262
12.4.2 Pathway of CO2 Reduction 262
12.4.3 CO2 Reduction to Formyl-Methanofuran 263
12.4.4 Conversion of the Formyl Group from Formyl-Methanofuran to Formyl-Tetrahydromethanopterin 263
12.4.5 Formation of Methenyl-Tetrahydromethanopterin 263
12.4.6 Reduction of Methenyl-Tetrahydromethanopterin to Methyl-Tetrahydromethanopterin 263
12.4.7 Reduction of Methyl-Tetrahydromethanopterin to Methyl-S-Coenzyme M 264
12.4.8 Reduction of Methyl-S-Coenzyme M to CH4 264
12.5 Strategies for Mitigation of Methane Emission 264
12.5.1 Dietary Manipulation 264
12.5.1.1 Increasing Dry Matter Intake 264
12.5.1.2 Increasing Ration Concentrate Fraction 265
12.5.1.3 Supplementation of Lipid 265
12.5.1.4 Protozoa Removal 266
12.5.2 Feed Additives 266
12.5.2.1 Ionophore Compounds 266
12.5.2.2 Halogenated Methane Compound 267
12.5.2.3 Organic Acid 267
12.5.3 Microbial Feed Additives 268
12.5.3.1 Vaccination 268
12.5.3.2 Bacteriophages and Bacteriocins 269
12.5.4 Animal Breeding and Selection 270
12.6 Conclusion 270
References 271
13 Liquid Biofertilizers and Their Applications: An Overview 275
Avro Dey
13.1 Introduction 275
13.1.1 Chemical Fertilizer and its Harmful Effect 277
13.2 Biofertilizers “Boon for Mankind” 278
13.3 Carrier-Based Biofertilizers 279
13.3.1 Solid Carrier-Based Biofertilizers 279
13.3.2 Liquid Biofertilizer 279
13.4 Sterilization of the Carrier 282
13.5 Merits of Using Liquid Biofertilizer Over Solid Carrier-Based Biofertilizer 282
13.6 Types of Liquid Biofertilizer 283
13.7 Production of Liquid Biofertilizers 285
13.7.1 Isolation of the Microorganism 285
13.7.2 Preparation of Medium and Growth Condition 285
13.7.3 Culture and Preservation 286
13.7.4 Preparation of Liquid Culture 286
13.7.5 Fermentation and Mass Production 287
13.7.6 Formulation of the Liquid Biofertilizers 287
13.8 Applications of Biofertilizers 288
13.9 Conclusion 290
References 291
14 Extremozymes: Biocatalysts From Extremophilic Microorganisms and Their Relevance in Current Biotechnology 293
Khushbu Kumari Singh and Lopamudra Ray
14.1 Introduction 294
14.2 Extremophiles: The Source of Novel Enzymes 295
14.2.1 Thermophilic Extremozymes 296
14.2.2 Psychrophilic Extremozymes 299
14.2.3 Halophilic Extremozymes 300
14.2.4 Alkaliphilic/Acidiophilic Extremozymes 300
14.2.5 Piezophilic Extremozymes 301
14.3 The Potential Application of Extremozymes in Biotechnology 301
14.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 303
References 304
15 Microbial Chitinases and Their Applications: An Overview 313
Suraja Kumar Nayak, Swapnarani Nayak, Swaraj Mohanty, Jitendra Kumar Sundaray and Bibhuti Bhusan Mishra
15.1 Introduction 314
15.2 Chitinases and Its Types 315
15.3 Sources of Microbial Chitinase 317
15.3.1 Bacterial Chitinases 317
15.3.2 Fungal Chitinases 319
15.3.3 Actinobacteria 321
15.3.4 Viruses/Others 322
15.4 Genetics of Microbial Chitinase 322
15.5 Biotechnological Advances in Microbial Chitinase Production 323
15.5.1 Media Components 324
15.5.2 Physical Parameters 325
15.5.3 Modes and Methods of Fermentation 325
15.5.4 Advances Biotechnological Methods 326
15.6 Applications of Microbial Chitinases 327
15.6.1 Agricultural 328
15.6.1.1 Biopesticides 328
15.6.1.2 Biocontrol 328
15.6.2 Biomedical 329
15.6.3 Pharmaceutical 329
15.6.4 Industrial 330
15.6.5 Environmental 330
15.6.5.1 Waste Management 331
15.6.6 Others 331
15.7 Conclusion 332
References 332
16 Lithobiontic Ecology: Stone Encrusting Microbes and their Environment 341
Abhik Mojumdar, Himadri Tanaya Behera and Lopamudra Ray
16.1 Introduction 341
16.2 Diversity of Lithobionts and Its Ecological Niche 342
16.2.1 Epiliths 342
16.2.2 Endoliths 343
16.2.3 Hypoliths 344
16.3 Colonization Strategies of Lithobionts 345
16.3.1 Temperature 346
16.3.2 Water Availability 346
16.3.3 Light Availability 347
16.4 Geography of Lithobbiontic Coatings 348
16.4.1 Bacteria 348
16.4.2 Cyanobacteria 349
16.4.3 Fungi 349
16.4.4 Algae 349
16.4.5 Lichens 350
16.5 Impacts of Lithobiontic Coatings 351
16.5.1 On Organic Remains 351
16.5.2 On Rock Weathering 351
16.5.3 On Rock Coatings 352
16.6 Role of Lithobionts in Harsh Environments 352
16.7 Conclusion 353
Acknowledgement 353
References 353
17 Microbial Intervention in Sustainable Production of Biofuels and Other Bioenergy Products 361
Himadri Tanaya Behera, Abhik Mojumdar, Smruti Ranjan Das, Chiranjib Mohapatra and Lopamudra Ray
17.1 Introduction 362
17.2 Biomass 363
17.3 Biofuel 364
17.3.1 Biodiesel 365
17.3.1.1 Microalgae in Biodiesel Production 365
17.3.1.2 Oleaginous Yeasts in Biodiesel Production 366
17.3.1.3 Oleaginous Fungi in Biodiesel Production 366
17.3.1.4 Bacteria in Biodiesel Production 367
17.3.2 Bioalcohol 367
17.3.2.1 Bioethanol 367
17.3.2.2 Biobutanol 368
17.3.3 Biogas 369
17.3.4 Biohydrogen 369
17.4 Other Bioenergy Products 370
17.4.1 Microbial Fuel Cells 370
17.4.1.1 Microbes Used in MFCs 372
17.4.1.2 Future Aspects of Microbial Fuel Cells 372
17.4.2 Microbial Nanowires in Bioenergy Application 374
17.4.2.1 Pili 375
17.4.2.2 Outer Membranes and Extended Periplasmic Space 375
17.4.2.3 Unknown Type—MNWs Whose Identity to be Confirmed 375
17.4.3 Microbial Nanowires in Bioenergy Production 376
17.5 Conclusion 376
References 376
18 Role of Microbes and Microbial Consortium in Solid Waste Management 383
Rachana Jain, Lopa Pattanaik, Susant Kumar Padhi and Satya Narayan Naik
18.1 Introduction 384
18.2 Types of Solid Waste 384
18.2.1 Domestic Wastes 385
18.2.2 Institutional and Commercial Wastes 385
18.2.3 Wastes From Street Cleansing 385
18.2.4 Industrial Wastes 385
18.2.5 Nuclear Wastes 385
18.2.6 Agricultural Wastes 385
18.3 Waste Management in India 386
18.4 Solid Waste Management 390
18.4.1 Municipal Solid Waste Management 390
18.5 Solid Waste Management Techniques 390
18.5.1 Incineration 392
18.5.2 Pyrolysis and Gasification 392
18.5.3 Landfilling 393
18.5.4 Aerobic Composting 394
18.5.5 Vermicomposting 397
18.5.6 Anaerobic Digestion 401
18.5.6.1 Enzymatic Hydrolysis 402
18.5.6.2 Fermentation 402
18.5.6.3 Acetogenesis 403
18.5.6.4 Methanogenesis 403
18.5.7 Bioethanol From Various Solid Wastes 404
18.6 Conclusion 413
References 413
Index 423
