Reviews cur
Table of Contents
List of Contributors xiii
Foreword xvii
Acknowledgments xix
Biofuels Production Technologies: Recent Advancement xxi
1 Role of Enzymes in Biofuel Production 1
Ashok Kumar Yadav, Surabhi Pandey, Abhishek Dutt Tripathi and Veena Paul
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Biofuel Classification 2
1.3 Enzymes Role in Biofuels 3
1.4 Enzymatic Reaction 4
1.5 Enzyme Recovery and Reuse 4
1.6 Enzyme Immobilization 4
1.6.1 Adsorption on Physical Surface: Physical Adsorption 5
1.6.2 Ionic Bonding 5
1.6.3 Entanglement or Envelopment 6
1.6.4 Cross-Linkage 6
1.7 Unique Techniques of Enzyme Immobilization 6
1.8 Application of Various Enzymes in Biofuel Production 6
1.8.1 Amylases 6
1.8.2 Proteases 7
1.8.3 Dehydrogenases 7
1.8.4 Lipase 8
1.9 Biofuel Production Process 8
1.9.1 Bioethanol 8
1.9.2 Biohydrogen 11
1.9.3 Biomethane 11
1.9.4 Biodiesel 12
1.10 Production of Biodiesel by Enzymatic Catalysis 14
1.10.1 Batch Method 15
1.10.2 Continuous Stirred-Tank Method 15
1.10.3 Packed-Bed Columns 15
1.11 Future Prospects 16
1.12 Conclusion 16
References 17
2 Microbial Technology for Biofuel Production 19
Spriha Raven, Sashita Bindu Ekka, Stephen Edward Chattree, Shivani Smita Sadanand, Lipi Rina and Archana Tiwari
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Microbial Biofuel 20
2.3 Microbial Pathway for Biofuel Production 21
2.3.1 Sugar Conversion to Alcohols/Glycolytic Pathway 21
2.3.2 Butanol Synthetic Pathway/ABE Pathway 21
2.3.3 2-Keto Acid Pathways for Alcohols 22
2.3.4 2-Keto Acid Pathway for Iso-Butanol 22
2.3.5 Protein into Alcohol 22
2.4 Algal Biofuel Production 22
2.4.1 Microalgal Cultivation 23
2.4.2 Microalgae Harvesting 25
2.4.3 Conversion Techniques for Algal Biofuel Production 25
2.4.3.1 Thermochemical Conversion 25
2.4.3.2 Biochemical Conversion 27
2.4.3.3 Transesterification (or Chemical Conversion) 28
2.4.3.4 Photosynthetic Microbial Fuel Cell 28
2.5 Bioethanol 28
2.6 Biodiesel 29
2.6.1 Stages of Biodiesel Production 31
2.6.1.1 Cultivation 31
2.6.1.2 Harvesting/Dewatering 32
2.6.1.3 Oil Extraction 32
2.6.1.4 Conversion 33
2.7 Biohydrogen 33
2.7.1 Stages of Biohydrogen Production 34
2.7.1.1 Biophotolysis 34
2.7.1.2 Photo Fermentation 36
2.7.1.3 Dark Fermentation 36
2.7.1.4 Two-Step Process (a Combination of Photo and Dark Fermentation) 37
2.8 Applications of Biofuel Production 38
2.8.1 In Aviation 39
2.8.2 Maritime Industry 39
2.8.3 Heat 39
2.8.4 Backup Systems 39
2.8.5 Cleaning Oil Spills 39
2.8.6 Microalgae Applications 39
2.9 Conclusion 40
References 40
3 Biohydrogen Production from Cellulosic Waste Biomass 47
Enosh Phillips
3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 History of Hydrogen Fuel 48
3.3 Biohydrogen Fuel Cell 48
3.4 Cellulosic Biohydrogen Production from Waste Biomass 50
3.4.1 Biohydrogen Production from Wheat Straw and Wheat Bran 51
3.4.2 Biohydrogen Production from Corn Stalk 54
3.4.3 Biohydrogen from Rice Straw and Rice Bran 55
3.4.4 Biohydrogen Production from Food Waste 57
3.4.5 Biohydrogen from Bagasse 58
3.4.6 Biohydrogen Production from Mushroom CultivationWaste 60
3.4.7 Biohydrogen Production from Sweet Potato Starch Residue 61
3.4.8 Biohydrogen from De-Oiled Jatropha 61
3.4.9 Biohydrogen Production Banyan Leaves and Maize Leaves 62
3.5 Conclusion 62
References 64
4 Strategies for Obtaining Biofuels Through the Fermentation of C5-Raw Materials: Part 1 69
Alexandre S. Santos, Lílian A. Pantoja, Mayara C. S. Barcelos, Kele A. C. Vespermann and Gustavo Molina
4.1 The Nature of Pentoses 69
4.2 Alcoholic Fermentation of C5 71
4.3 Lipid Biosynthesis from C5 79
4.4 Conclusion 82
References 82
5 Strategies for Obtaining Biofuels Through the Fermentation of C5-Raw Materials: Part 2 85
Alexandre Soares dos Santos, Lílian Pantoja, Kele A. C. Vespermann, Mayara C. S. Barcelos and Gustavo Molina
5.1 Introduction 85
5.2 Ethanol Production Using C5-Fermenter Strain 86
5.2.1 Pentose-Fermenting Microorganisms 86
5.3 Microbial Lipid Production by C5-Fermenter Strains for Biofuel Advances 90
5.4 Concluding Remarks 96
References 96
6 An Overview of Microalgal Carotenoids: Advances in the Production and Its Impact on Sustainable Development 105
Rahul Kumar Goswami, Komal Agrawal and Pradeep Verma
6.1 Introduction 105
6.1.1 Interaction and Understanding of Carotenoid 106
6.1.2 Differentiation between Natural or Chemically Synthesized Carotenoids 106
6.2 Diverse Category of Carotenoids 107
6.2.1 β-Carotene 107
6.2.2 Lutein 107
6.2.3 Astaxanthin 108
6.2.4 Canthaxanthin 108
6.3 Microalgae Prospects for the Production of Carotenoids 109
6.3.1 Bio-Formation of Carotenoids inside Microalgae/Carotenogenesis inside Microalgae Cells 110
6.3.2 Potent Microalgae Strain for Carotenoid Production 111
6.3.2.1 Haematococcus pluvialis 112
6.3.2.2 Dunaliella salina. 113
6.3.2.3 Other Microalgae Species Used for the Production of Carotenoids 113
6.3.3 Enhancement of Carotenoid Productivity by Optimizing Various Physiological Condition/Physiological Approaches for Enhancement of Carotenoid Production inside Microalga Cells 115
6.3.3.1 Role of Nutrient Deficient Stress for Carotenogenesis 115
6.3.3.2 Lights and Temperature Stress for Induction of Carotenogenesis 116
6.3.3.3 Role of Oxidative Stress in Carotenogenesis 116
6.3.3.4 Approaches which Enhance Carotenogenesis by Heterotrophic and Mixotrophic Cultivation of Microalgae 117
6.3.3.5 Cohesive Cultivation System in Microalgae for Enhancement of Carotenoid 117
6.3.4 Metabolic and Genetic Modification in Microalgae for Enhancement of Carotenoid Production 118
6.4 Significance of Carotenoid in Human Health 119
6.4.1 Anti-Inflammatory and Antioxidant Properties 119
6.4.2 Anticancerous Activity and their Potential of a Generation of an Immune Response 119
6.4.3 As Provitamin 121
6.4.4 Other Significance of Microalgae Carotenoids 121
6.5 Opportunities and Challenges in Carotenoid Production 121
6.6 Present Drifts and Future Prospects 122
6.7 Conclusion 123
References 123
7 Microbial Xylanases: A Helping Module for the Enzyme Biorefinery Platform 129
Nisha Bhardwaj and Pradeep Verma
7.1 Introduction 129
7.2 Raw Material for Biorefinery 130
7.3 Structure of Lignocellulosic Plant Biomass 132
7.4 The Concept of Biorefinery 132
7.5 Role of Enzymes in Biorefinery 134
7.5.1 In Biological Pretreatment 134
7.5.2 In Enzymatic Hydrolysis 135
7.6 Enzyme Synergy: A Conceptual Strategy 136
7.7 Factors Affecting Biological Pretreatment 137
7.8 Advantages of Xylanases from Thermophilic Microorganisms in Biorefinery 138
7.9 The Products of Biorefinery 138
7.9.1 Bioethanol 138
7.9.2 Biobutanol 141
7.9.3 Hydrogen 142
7.10 Molecular Aspects of Enzymes in Biorefinery 142
7.11 Conclusion 143
References 143
8 Microbial Cellulolytic-Based Biofuel Production 153
S.M. Bhatt
8.1 Introduction 153
8.2 Biofuel Classifications 153
8.2.1 Generations of Biofuel 153
8.2.2 Bioethanol Production Using Lignocellulose 154
8.2.2.1 Polymeric Lignocellulosic Composition 157
8.3 Bioprocessing of Bagasse for Bioethanol Production 157
8.3.1 Enzymatic Hydrolysis and Cellulose Structure 159
8.3.1.1 Cellulolytic Microbes 159
8.4 Microbial Cellulase 160
8.5 Mode of Economical Production of Enzyme 161
8.6 Structure of Cellulase 163
8.6.1 CBH1 Structure 164
8.6.2 Thermophilic Cellulase Enzyme 164
8.7 Family Classification 164
8.8 Consortia-Based Cellulase Production 165
8.9 Cellulase Production SSF Mode 165
8.10 Concluding Remarks 166
Declarations 166
Acknowledgment 166
References 166
9 Recent Developments of Bioethanol Production 175
Arla Sai Kumar, Sana Siva Sankar, S K Godlaveeti, Dinesh Kumar, S Dheiver, Ram
Prasad, Chandrasekhar Nb, Thi Hong Chuong Nguyen and Quyet Van Le
9.1 Introduction 175
9.2 Emerging Techniques in Bioethanol Production 178
9.3 Advancement in Distillation and Waste-Valorization Techniques 179
9.3.1 Heat Integrated Distillation 179
9.3.2 Membrane Technology 180
9.3.2.1 Membrane-Assisted Vapor Stripping 180
9.3.2.2 Combining Extractive and Azeotropic Distillation 180
9.3.2.3 Feed-Splitting 182
9.3.2.4 Ohmic-Assisted Hydro Distillation (OADH) 182
9.4 Green Extraction of Bioactive Products 182
9.4.1 Pulsed Electric Fields (PFE) 183
9.4.2 High-Voltage Electrical Discharges 184
9.4.3 Enzyme-Assisted Extraction 184
9.4.4 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction 187
9.4.5 Microwave-Assisted Extraction 188
9.4.6 Subcritical Fluid Extraction 188
9.4.7 Ohmic-Assisted Extraction 188
9.5 Advancement in Bioethanol Production from Microalgae 188
9.5.1 Surface Methods 188
9.5.2 Ligno Celluloic Bio Ethanol Production 189
9.5.2.1 Membrane Technology 189
9.5.2.2 Microbial Technique 191
9.5.2.3 Brown Algae 191
9.5.2.4 Integrated Processes 191
9.5.2.5 Advances in Bioethanol Production from Agroindustrial Waste 192
9.6 Fermentation Technique Advances 192
9.6.1 Synthesis from Municipal Wastes 193
9.6.1.1 Waste Paper 193
9.6.1.2 Coffee Residue 194
9.6.1.3 Food Waste 194
9.6.1.4 Solid Waste 195
9.7 Conclusion 196
References 198
10 Algal Biofuels – Types and Production Technologies 209
Sreedevi Sarsan and K. Vindhya Vasini Roy
10.1 Introduction 209
10.2 Algal Biofuels 210
10.3 Production of Algal Biofuels 211
10.3.1 Algae Cultivation Systems 211
10.3.1.1 Cultivation of Macroalgae 212
10.3.1.2 Cultivation of Microalgae 214
10.3.2 Harvesting of Algae 220
10.3.2.1 Harvesting of Macroalgae 220
10.3.2.2 Harvesting of Microalgae 220
10.3.3 Drying 222
10.3.4 Cell Disruption 222
10.3.5 Conversion into Biofuel 223
10.4 Types of Algal Biofuels 223
10.4.1 Biodiesel 224
10.4.2 Bioethanol 226
10.4.3 Biogas/Biomethane 228
10.4.4 Biomethanol 230
10.4.5 Biobutanol 230
10.4.6 Biohydrogen 230
10.4.7 Biosyngas 231
10.4.8 Green Diesel 231
10.5 Advantages of Algal Biofuels 232
10.5.1 Ease of Growth 232
10.5.2 Impact on Food 232
10.5.3 Environmental Impact 233
10.5.4 Algal by Products 234
10.5.5 Economic Benefits 234
10.6 Limitations 234
10.7 Conclusion 235
References 235
11 Biomethane Production and Advancement 245
Rajeev Singh, P K Mishra, Neha Srivastava, Akshay Shrivastav and K R Srivastava
11.1 Introduction 245
11.1.1 Process Involved in Biomethane Production 247
11.1.2 Purification of Biogas for Methane Production 249
11.2 Advancement Undergoing in the Process of Methane Production 250
11.2.1 Adsorption by Pressure Swing 250
11.3 Adsorption Methods 251
11.4 Separation by Membrane 251
11.5 Cryogenic Separation 252
11.6 Biological Technique for Purification of Biogas 252
11.6.1 Advantage and Limitation of Biomethane Production 252
11.6.2 Conclusion 253
References 254
12 Biodiesel Production and Advancement from Diatom Algae 261
Abhishek Saxena and Archana Tiwari
12.1 Introduction 261
12.2 Diatom Algae as a Source of Lipids 262
12.3 Biodiesel Production from Diatoms 265
12.4 Innovative Approaches toward Enhancement in Biodiesel Production and Challenges 267
12.5 Advancements in Diatoms-Based Biodiesel Production 269
12.6 Conclusion 270
Acknowledgments 272
References 272
13 Biobutanol Production and Advancement 279
Enosh Phillips
13.1 Introduction 279
13.2 Biobutanol 279
13.3 ABE Process for Biobutanol Production 281
13.4 Biobutanol Production by ABE 282
13.5 Substrate Used in Biobutanol Production 283
13.6 Advancement in Pretreatment Method 284
13.7 Microbial Engineering for Production Enhancement 284
13.8 Conclusion 285
Acknowledgment 286
References 286
Index 291
