{"product_id":"polylactic-acid-synthesis-structures-properties-processing-applications-and-end-of-life-2nd-edition-9781119767442","title":"Polylactic acid Synthesis Structures Properties","description":"\u003cb\u003eBook Synopsis\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cb\u003eTable of Contents\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cp\u003eList of Contributors xix\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePreface xxiii\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAuthor Biographies xxvii\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePart I Chemistry and Production of Lactic Acid, Lactide, and Poly(Lactic Acid) 1\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1 Production and Purification of Lactic Acid and Lactide 3\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eWim Groot, Jan van Krieken, Olav Sliekersl, and Sicco de Vos\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1 Introduction 3\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2 Lactic Acid 4\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2.1 History of Lactic Acid 4\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2.2 Physical Properties of Lactic Acid 4\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2.3 Chemistry of Lactic Acid 4\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2.4 Production of Lactic Acid by Fermentation 5\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2.5 Downstream Processing\/Purification of Lactic Acid 8\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2.6 Quality\/Specifications of Lactic Acid 10\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3 Lactide 10\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3.1 Physical Properties of Lactide 10\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3.2 Production of Lactide 11\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3.3 Purification of Lactide 13\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3.4 Quality and Specifications of Polymer-Grade Lactide 14\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3.5 Concluding Remarks on Polymer-Grade Lactide 16\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 16\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2 Aqueous Solutions of Lactic Acid 19\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eCarl T. Lira and Lars Peereboom\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1 Introduction 19\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2 Structure of Lactic Acid 19\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3 Vapor Pressure of Anhydrous Lactic Acid and Lactide 19\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4 Oligomerization in Aqueous Solutions 20\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5 Equilibrium Distribution of Oligomers 21\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium 23\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7 Density of Aqueous Solutions 25\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.8 Viscosity of Aqueous Solutions 25\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.9 Summary 26\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 26\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3 Industrial Production of High-Molecular-Weight Poly(Lactic Acid) 29\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eAnders Södergård, Mikael Stolt, and Saara Inkinen\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1 Introduction 29\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2 Lactic-Acid-Based Polymers by Polycondensation 30\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.1 Direct Condensation 31\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.2 Solid-State Polycondensation 32\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.3 Azeotropic Dehydration 33\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3 Lactic Acid-Based Polymers by Chain Extension 34\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3.1 Chain Extension with Diisocyanates 34\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3.2 Chain Extension with Bis-2-Oxazoline 36\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3.3 Dual Linking Processes 36\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3.4 Chain Extension with Bis-Epoxies 36\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4 Lactic-Acid-Based Polymers by Ring-Opening Polymerization 37\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4.1 Polycondensation Processes 37\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4.2 Lactide Manufacturing 37\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4.3 Ring-Opening Polymerization 39\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 40\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4 Design and Synthesis of Different Types of Poly(Lactic Acid)\/Polylactide Copolymers 45\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eAnn-Christine\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003ci\u003eAlbertsson, Indra Kumari Varma, Bimlesh Lochab, Anna Finne-Wistrand, Sangeeta Sahu, and Kamlesh Kumar\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1 Introduction 45\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2 Comonomers with Lactic Acid\/Lactide 47\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2.1 Glycolic Acid\/Glycolide 47\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2.2 Poly(Alkylene Glycol) 48\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2.3 δ-Valerolactone and β-Butyrolactone 51\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2.4 \u003cb\u003eε\u003c\/b\u003e-Caprolactone 51\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2.5 1,5-Dioxepan-2-One 52\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2.6 Trimethylene Carbonate 52\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2.7 Poly(\u003ci\u003eN\u003c\/i\u003e-Isopropylacrylamide) 52\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2.8 Alkylthiophene (P3AT) 53\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2.9 Polypeptide 53\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3 Functionalized PLA 54\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4 Macromolecular Design of Lactide-Based Copolymers 55\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4.1 Graft Copolymers 57\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4.2 Star-Shaped Copolymers 59\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4.3 Periodic Copolymers 60\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5 Properties of Lactide-Based Copolymers 62\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.6 Degradation of Lactide Homo-and Copolymers 63\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.6.1 Drug Delivery from Lactide-Based Copolymers 64\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.6.2 Radiation Effects 65\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 65\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5 Preparation, Structure, and Properties of Stereocomplex-Type Poly(Lactic Acid) 73\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eNeha Mulchandani, Yoshiharu Kimura, and Vimal Katiyar\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1 Introduction 73\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2 Stereocomplexation in Poly(Lactic Acid) 73\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3 Crystal Structure of sc-PLA 74\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.4 Formation of Stereoblock PLA 75\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.4.1 Single-Step Process 75\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.4.2 Stepwise ROP 76\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.4.3 Chain Coupling Method 77\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.5 Stereocomplexation in Copolymers 79\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.5.1 Stereocomplexation in Random and Alternating Lactic Acid or Lactide-Based Polymers 79\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.5.2 sc-PLA–PCL Copolymers 80\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.5.3 sc-PLA–PEG Copolymers 80\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.6 Stereocomplex PLA-Based Composites 81\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.7 Advances in Stereocomplex-PLA 82\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.8 Conclusions 83\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 83\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePart II Properties 87\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e6 Structures and Phase Transitions of PLA and Its Related Polymers 89\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eHai Wang and Kohji Tashiro\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.1 Introduction 89\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2 Structural Study of PLA 89\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2.1 Preparation of Crystal Modifications of PLA 89\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2.2 Crystal Structure of the α Form 91\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2.3 Crystal Structure of the δ Form 92\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2.4 Crystal Structure of the β Form 93\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2.5 Structure of the Mesophase 94\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3 Thermally Induced Phase Transitions 95\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3.1 Phase Transition in Cold Crystallization 95\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3.2 Phase Transition in the Melt Crystallization 95\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3.3 Mechanically Induced Phase Transition 96\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.4 Microscopically-viewed Structure-Mechanical Properties of PLA 98\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5 Structure and Formation of PLLA\/PDLA Stereocomplex 100\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5.1 Reconsideration of the Crystal Structure 100\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5.2 Experimental Support of \u003ci\u003eP\u003c\/i\u003e3 Structure Model 103\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5.3 Formation Mechanism of Stereocomplex 104\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.6 PHB and Other Biodegradable Polyesters 106\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.6.1 Poly(3-Hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) 106\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.6.2 Polyethylene Adipate (PEA) 109\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.7 Future Perspectives 110\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements 110\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 110\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7 Optical and Spectroscopic Properties 115\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eIsabel M. Marrucho\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1 Introduction 115\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2 Absorption and Transmission of UV–Vis Radiation 115\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3 Refractive Index 118\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4 Specific Optical Rotation 119\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5 Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy 119\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5.1 Infrared Spectroscopy 120\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5.2 Raman Spectroscopy 125\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.6 1H and 13C NMR Spectroscopy 127\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 131\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e8 Crystallization and Thermal Properties 135\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eLuca Fambri and Claudio Migliaresi\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.1 Introduction 135\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2 Crystallinity and Crystallization 136\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.3 Crystallization Regime 140\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4 Fibers 142\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5 Commercial Polymers and Products 144\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.6 Degradation and Crystallinity 146\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcknowledgments 148\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 148\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9 Rheology of Poly(Lactic Acid) 153\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eJohn R. Dorgan\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.1 Introduction 153\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2 Fundamental Chain Properties from Dilute Solution Viscometry 154\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2.1 Unperturbed Chain Dimensions 154\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2.2 Real Chains 154\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2.3 Solution Viscometry 155\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2.4 Viscometry of PLA 156\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3 Processing of PLA: General Considerations 158\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4 Melt Rheology: An Overview 159\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.5 Processing of PLA: Rheological Properties 160\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.6 Conclusions 165\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAppendix 9.A Description of the Software 166\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 166\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10 Mechanical Properties 169\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eMohammadreza Nofar, Gabriele Perego, and Gian Domenico Cella\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.1 Introduction 169\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2 General Mechanical Properties and Molecular Weight Effect 170\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2.1 Tensile and Flexural Properties 170\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2.2 Impact Resistance 171\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2.3 Hardness 172\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.3 Temperature Effect 172\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.4 Relaxation and Aging 173\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.5 Annealing 174\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.6 Orientation 176\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7 Stereoregularity 179\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8 Self-Reinforced\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePLA Composites 180\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.9 PLA Nanocomposites 180\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10 Copolymerization 181\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.11 Plasticization 181\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.12 PLA Blends 182\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.13 Conclusions 186\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 186\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e11 Mass Transfer 191\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eUruchaya Sonchaeng and Rafael Auras\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.1 Introduction 191\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2 Background on Mass Transfer in Polymers 193\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3 Mass Transfer Properties of Neat PLA Films 194\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.1 Mass Transfer of Gases 194\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.2 Mass Transfer of Oxygen 199\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.3 Mass Transfer of Water Vapor 201\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.4 Mass Transfer of Organic Vapors 203\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4 Mass Transfer Properties of Modified PLA 205\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4.1 PLA Stereocomplex and PLA Blends 206\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4.2 PLA Nanocomposites 207\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4.3 Other PLA Modifications 207\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4.4 PLA in Other Forms 207\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.5 Final Remarks 208\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcknowledgments 208\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 208\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12 Migration and Interaction with Contact Materials 217\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eHerlinda Soto-Valdez and Elizabeth Peralta\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.1 Introduction 217\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.2 Migration Principles 217\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3 Legislation 218\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4 Migration and Toxicological Data of Lactic Acid, Lactide, Dimers, and Oligomers 219\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4.1 Lactic Acid 219\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4.2 Lactide 224\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4.3 Oligomers 225\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.5 EDI of Lactic Acid 226\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.6 Other Potential Migrants from PLA 227\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.7 Conclusions 227\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 228\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePart III Processing and Conversion 231\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e13 Processing of Poly(Lactic Acid) 233\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eLoong-Tak Lim, Tim Vanyo, Jed Randall, Kevin Cink, and Ashwini K. Agrawal\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.1 Introduction 233\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.2 Properties of PLA Relevant to Processing 233\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3 Modification of PLA Properties by Process Aids and Other Additives 235\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4 Drying and Crystallizing 237\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5 Extrusion 239\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6 Injection Molding 241\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.7 Film and Sheet Casting 245\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.8 Stretch Blow Molding 249\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.9 Extrusion Blown Film 251\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.10 Thermoforming 252\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.11 Melt Spinning 254\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.12 Solution Spinning 258\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.13 Electrospinning 261\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.14 Filament Extrusion and 3D-Printing 265\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.15 Conclusion: Prospects of PLA Polymers 266\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 267\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e14 Blends 271\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eAjay Kathuria, Sukeewan Detyothin, Waree Jaruwattanayon, Susan E. M. Selke, and Rafael Auras\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.1 Introduction 271\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2 PLA Nonbiodegradable Polymer Blends 272\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2.1 Polyolefins 272\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2.2 Vinyl and Vinylidene Polymers and Copolymers 279\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2.3 Rubbers and Elastomers 285\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2.4 PLA\/PMMA Blends 287\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3 PLA\/Biodegradable Polymer Blends 289\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3.1 Polyanhydrides 289\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3.2 Vinyl and Vinylidene Polymers and Copolymers 289\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3.3 Aliphatic Polyesters and Copolyesters 297\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3.4 Aliphatic–Aromatic Copolyesters 303\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3.5 Elastomers and Rubbers 305\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3.6 Poly(Ester Amide)\/PLA Blends 307\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3.7 Polyethers and Copolymers 307\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3.8 Annually Renewable Biodegradable Materials 309\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.4 Plasticization of PLA 322\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.5 Conclusions 326\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 327\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e15 Foaming 341\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eLaurent M. Matuana\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.1 Introduction 341\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.2 Plastic Foams 341\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.3 Foaming Agents 342\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.3.1 Physical Foaming Agents 342\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.3.2 Chemical Foaming Agents 342\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.4 Formation of Cellular Plastics 343\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.4.1 Dissolution of Blowing Agent in Polymer 343\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.4.2 Bubble Formation 343\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.4.3 Bubble Growth and Stabilization 344\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.5 Plastic Foams Expanded with Physical Foaming Agents 344\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.5.1 Microcellular Foamed Polymers 344\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.5.2 Solid-State Batch Microcellular Foaming Process 345\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.5.3 Microcellular Foaming in a Continuous Process 353\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6 PLA Foamed with Chemical Foaming Agents 358\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.1 Effects of CFA Content and Type 358\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.2 Effect of Processing Conditions 359\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7 Mechanical Properties of PLA Foams 360\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.1 Batch Microcellular Foamed PLA 360\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.2 Extrusion of PLA 361\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.3 Microcellular Injection Molding of PLA 362\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.8 Foaming of PLA\/Starch and Other Blends 362\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 363\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e16 Composites 367\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eTanmay Gupta, Vijay Shankar Kumawat, Subrata Bandhu Ghosh, Sanchita Bandyopadhyay-Ghosh, \u003c\/i\u003e\u003ci\u003eand Mohini Sain\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.1 Introduction 367\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.2 PLA Matrix 367\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.3 Reinforcements 368\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.3.1 Natural Fiber Reinforcement 368\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.3.2 Synthetic Fiber Reinforcement 370\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.3.3 Organic Filler Reinforcement 370\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.3.4 Inorganic Filler Reinforcement 371\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.3.5 Laminated\/Structural Composites 372\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.4 Nanocomposites 374\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.5 Surface Modification 375\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.5.1 Filler Surface Modification 375\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.5.2 Compatibilizing Agent 376\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.5.3 Composite Surface Modification 377\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.6 Processing 377\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.6.1 Conventional Processing 377\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.6.2 3D Printing 378\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.7 Properties 379\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.7.1 Mechanical Properties 379\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.7.2 Thermal Properties 382\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.7.3 Flame Retardancy 382\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.7.4 Degradation 383\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.7.5 Shape Memory Properties 383\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.8 Applications 384\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.8.1 Biomedical Applications 385\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.8.2 Packaging Applications 387\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.8.3 Automotive Applications 387\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.8.4 Sensing and Other Electronic Applications 388\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.9 Future Developments and Concluding Remarks 390\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 390\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e17 Nanocomposites: Processing and Mechanical Properties 411\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eSuprakas Sinha Ray\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.1 Introduction 411\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.2 Nanoclay-Containing PLA Nanocomposites 412\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.3 Carbon-Nanotubes-Containing PLA Nanocomposites 414\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.4 Graphene-Containing PLA Nanocomposites 416\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.5 Nanocellulose-Containing PLA Nanocomposites 417\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.6 Other Nanoparticle-Containing PLA Nanocomposites 418\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.7 Mechanical Properties of PLA-Based Nanocomposites 419\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.8 Possible Applications and Future Prospects 421\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcknowledgment 422\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 422\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e18 Mechanism of Fiber Structure Development in Melt Spinning of PLA 425\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eNanjaporn Roungpaisan, Midori Takasaki, Wataru Takarada, and Takeshi Kikutani\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.1 Introduction-Fundamentals of Structure Development in Polymer Processing 425\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.2 High-speed Melt Spinning of PLLAs with Different d-Lactic Acid Content 426\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.2.1 Wide-angle X-ray Diffraction 426\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.2.2 Birefringence 427\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.2.3 Differential Scanning Calorimetry 428\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.2.4 Modulated-DSC and Lattice Spacing 429\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.3 High-speed Melt-Spinning of Racemic Mixture of PLLA and PDLA 430\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.3.1 Stereocomplex Crystal 430\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.3.2 Melt Spinning of PLLA\/PDLA Blend 430\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.3.3 WAXD 431\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.3.4 Differential Scanning Calorimetry 432\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.3.5 In Situ WAXD upon Heating 432\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.4 Bicomponent Melt Spinning of PLLA and PDLA 433\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.4.1 Sheath-Core and Islands-in-the-Sea Configurations 433\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.4.2 Birefringence 434\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.4.3 DSC 434\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.4.4 Post Annealing 435\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.5 Concluding Remarks 436\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 437\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePart IV Degradation, Environmental Impact, and End of Life 439\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e19 Photodegradation and Radiation Degradation 441\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eWataru Sakai and Naoto Tsutsumi\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.1 Introduction 441\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.2 Mechanisms of Photodegradation 441\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.2.1 Photon 441\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.2.2 Photon Absorption 442\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.2.3 Photochemical Reactions of Carbonyl Groups 443\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.3 Mechanism of Radiation Degradation 443\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.3.1 High-Energy Radiation 443\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.3.2 Basic Mechanism of Radiation Degradation 444\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.4 Photodegradation of PLA 444\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.4.1 Fundamental Mechanism 444\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.4.2 Photooxidation Degradation 446\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.4.3 High-Energy Photo-Irradiation 447\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.4.4 Photosensitized Degradation of PLA 447\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.4.5 Photodegradation of PLA Blends 449\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.5 Radiation Degradation of PLA 449\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.6 Irradiation Effects on Biodegradability 451\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.7 Modification and Composites of PLA 452\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 452\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e20 Thermal Degradation 455\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eHaruo Nishida\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.1 Introduction 455\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.2 Thermal Degradation Behavior of PLLA Based on Weight Loss 455\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.2.1 Diverse Mechanisms 455\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.2.2 Factors Affecting the Thermal Degradation Mechanism 456\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.2.3 Thermal Stabilization 457\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.3 Kinetic Analysis of Thermal Degradation 458\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.3.1 Single-Step Thermal Degradation Process 458\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.3.2 Complex Thermal Degradation Process 459\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.4 Kinetic Analysis of Complex Thermal Degradation Behavior 460\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.4.1 Two-Step Complex Reaction Analysis of PLLA in Blends 460\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.4.2 Multistep Complex Reaction Analysis of Commercially Available PLLA 461\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.5 Thermal Degradation Behavior of PLA Stereocomplex: scPLA 463\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.6 Control of Racemization 464\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.7 Conclusions 465\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 465\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e21 Hydrolytic Degradation 467\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eHideto Tsuji\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.1 Introduction 467\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.2 Degradation Mechanism 467\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.2.1 Molecular Degradation Mechanism 468\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.2.2 Material Degradation Mechanism 479\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.2.3 Degradation of Crystalline Residues 485\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.3 Parameters for Hydrolytic Degradation 488\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.3.1 Effects of Surrounding Media 488\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.3.2 Effects of Material Parameters 490\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.4 Structural and Property Changes During Hydrolytic Degradation 498\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.4.1 Fractions of Components 498\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.4.2 Crystallization 498\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.4.3 Mechanical Properties 499\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.4.4 Thermal Properties 499\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.4.5 Surface Properties 500\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.4.6 Morphology 500\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.5 Applications of Hydrolytic Degradation 500\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.5.1 Material Preparation 500\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.5.2 Recycling of PLA to Its Monomer 502\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.6 Conclusions 503\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 503\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e22 Enzymatic Degradation 517\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eKen’ichiro Matsumoto, Hideki Abe, Yoshihiro Kikkawa, and Tadahisa Iwata\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.1 Introduction 517\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.1.1 Definition of Biodegradable Plastics 517\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.1.2 Enzymatic Degradation 517\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.2 Enzymatic Degradation of PLA Films 519\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.2.1 Structure and Substrate Specificity of Proteinase K 519\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.2.2 Enzymatic Degradability of PLLA Films 519\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.2.3 Enzymatic Degradability of PLA Stereoisomers and Their Blends 520\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.2.4 Effects of Surface Properties on Enzymatic Degradability of PLLA Films 521\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.3 Enzymatic Degradation of Thin Films 525\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.3.1 Thin Films and Analytical Techniques 525\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.3.2 Crystalline Morphologies of Thin Films 525\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.3.3 Enzymatic Adsorption and Degradation Rate of Thin Films 526\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.3.4 Enzymatic Degradation of LB Film 526\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.3.5 Application of Selective Enzymatic Degradation 529\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.4 Enzymatic Degradation of Lamellar Crystals 530\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.4.1 Enzymatic Degradation of PLLA Single Crystals 530\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.4.2 Thermal Treatment and Enzymatic Degradation of PLLA Single Crystals 532\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.4.3 Single Crystals of PLA Stereocomplex 533\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.5 Recent Advances in Characterization of Enzymes that Degrade PLAs Including PDLA and Related Copolymers 534\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.5.1 αβ-Hydrolase 535\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.5.2 Lipases and Cutinase-Like Enzymes 535\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.5.3 Polyhydroxyalkanoate Depolymerases 536\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.5.4 Enhancement of Biodegradability of PLAs 536\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.5.5 Control of Enzymatic Degradation of PLAs 537\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.6 Future Perspectives 537\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 537\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e23 Environmental Footprint and Life Cycle Assessment of Poly (Lactic Acid) 541\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eAmy E. Landis, Shakira R. Hobbs, Dennis Newby, Ja’Maya Wilson, and Talia Pincus\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.1 Introduction to LCA and Environmental Footprints 541\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.1.1 Life Cycle Assessment 541\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.1.2 Uncertainty in LCA 542\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.2 Life Cycle Considerations for PLA 542\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.2.1 The Life Cycle of PLA 542\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.2.2 Energy Use and Global Warming 544\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.2.3 Environmental Trade-Offs 544\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.2.4 Waste Management 545\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.2.5 End of Life 546\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.3 Review of Biopolymer LCA Studies 546\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.3.1 Cradle-to-Gate and Cradle-to-Grave LCAs 546\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.3.2 End-of-Life LCAs 547\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.4 Improving PLA’s Environmental Footprint 553\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.4.1 Agricultural Management 553\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.4.2 Feedstock Choice 554\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.4.3 Energy 554\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.4.4 Design for End of Life 555\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 555\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e24 End-of-Life Scenarios for Poly(Lactic Acid) 559\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eAnibal Bher, Edgar Castro-Aguirre, and Rafael Auras\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.1 Introduction 559\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.2 Transition from a Linear to a Circular Economy for Plastics 559\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.3 Waste Management System 561\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.4 End-of-Life Scenarios for PLA 564\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.4.1 Prevention and Source Reduction 565\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.4.2 Reuse 566\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.4.3 Recycling 566\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.4.4 Biodegradation 569\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.4.5 Incineration with Energy Recovery 572\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.4.6 Landfill 573\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.5 LCA of End-of-Life Scenario for PLA 574\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.6 Final Remarks 575\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 575\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePart V Applications 581\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e25 Medical Applications 583\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eShuko Suzuki and Yoshito Ikada\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.1 Introduction 583\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.2 Minimal Requirements for Medical Devices 583\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.2.1 General 583\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.2.2 PLA as Medical Implants 584\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.3 Preclinical and Clinical Applications of PLA Devices 585\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.3.1 Fibers 585\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.3.2 Meshes 588\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.3.3 Bone Fixation Devices 589\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.3.4 Micro-and Nanoparticles, and Thin Coatings 595\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.3.5 Scaffolds 597\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.4 Conclusions 598\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 598\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e26 Packaging and Consumer Goods 605\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eHayati Samsudin and Fabiola Iñiguez-Franco\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.1 Introduction: Polylactic Acid (PLA) in Packaging and Consumer Goods 605\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.2 Food and Beverage 606\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.2.1 Evolution of PLA in the Food and Beverage Market 606\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.2.2 Growing Interest in PLA Serviceware 607\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.3 Distribution Packaging 612\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.4 Other Consumer Goods : Automotive 613\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.5 Other Consumer Goods 613\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.6 Challenges and Final Remarks 614\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 615\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e27 Textile Applications 619\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eMasatsugu Mochizuki\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.1 Introduction 619\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.2 Manufacturing, Properties, and Structure of PLA Fibers 619\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.2.1 PLA Fiber Manufacture 619\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.2.2 Properties of PLA Fibers and Textile 619\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.2.3 Effects of Structure on Properties 620\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.2.4 PLA Stereocomplex Fibers 621\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.3 Key Performance Features of PLA Fibers 621\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.3.1 Biodegradability and the Biodegradation Mechanism 621\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.3.2 Moisture Management 623\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.3.3 Antibacterial\/Antifungal Properties 623\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.3.4 Low Flammability 624\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.3.5 Weathering Stability 624\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.4 Potential Applications 625\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.4.1 Geotextiles 625\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.4.2 Industrial Fabrics 625\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.4.3 Filters 626\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.4.4 Towels and Wipes 626\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.4.5 Home Furnishings 627\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.4.6 Clothing and Personal Belongings 627\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.4.7 3D-Printing Filament 628\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.5 Conclusions 628\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 628\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e28 Environmental Applications 631\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eAkira Hiraishi and Takeshi Yamada\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.1 Introduction 631\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.2 Application to Water and Wastewater Treatment 631\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.2.1 Application as Sorbents 631\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.2.2 Application to Nitrogen Removal 633\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.3 Application to Methanogenesis 637\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.3.1 Anaerobic Digestion 637\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.3.2 Methanogenic Microbial Community 637\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.4 Application to Bioremediation 638\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.4.1 Significance of PLA Use 638\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.4.2 Bioremediation of Organohalogen Pollution 638\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.4.3 Other Applications 639\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.5 Concluding Remarks and Prospects 640\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcknowledgments 641\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 641\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndex 645\u003c\/p\u003e","brand":"John Wiley \u0026 Sons Inc","offers":[{"title":"Default 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