{"product_id":"leadfree-soldering-process-development-and-reliability-9781119482031","title":"Leadfree Soldering Process Development and","description":"\u003cb\u003eBook Synopsis\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCovering\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003ethe majortopics in lead-free soldering\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003ci\u003eLead-free Soldering Process Development and Reliability\u003c\/i\u003eprovides a comprehensive discussion of all modern topics in lead-free soldering. Perfect forprocess, quality,failure analysisand reliability engineersin production industries,this reference will help practitioners address issues inresearch, development andproduction.\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong other topics, the book addresses:\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Developments in process engineering(SMT, Wave, Rework, Paste Technology)\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Lowtemperature,hightemperature andhighreliabilityalloys\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Intermetallic compounds\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e PCB surface finishesandlaminates\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Underfills, encapsulants and conformal coatings\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Reliability assessments\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn a regulatory environment that includes the adoption of mandatory lead-free requirements in a variety of countries, the book'sexplanations ofhigh-temperature, low-temperature, andhigh-reliabilitylead-free alloysin terms of process and re\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cb\u003eTable of Contents\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eList of Contributors xix\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntroduction xxi\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1 Lead-Free Surface Mount Technology \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eJennifer Nguyen and Jasbir Bath\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1 Introduction 1\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2 Lead-Free Solder Paste Alloys 1\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3 Solder Paste Printing 2\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3.1 Introduction 2\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3.2 Key Paste Printing Elements 2\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4 Component Placement 5\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4.1 Introduction 5\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4.2 Key Placement Parameters 5\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4.2.1 Nozzle 6\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4.2.2 Vision System 6\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4.2.3 PCB Support 6\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4.2.4 Component Size, Packaging, and Feeder Capacity 6\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4.2.5 Feeder Capacity 6\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5 Reflow Process 7\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5.1 Introduction 7\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5.2 Key Parameters 7\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5.2.1 Preheat 7\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5.2.2 Soak 8\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5.2.3 Reflow 8\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5.2.4 Cooling 9\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5.2.5 Reflow Atmosphere 9\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6 Vacuum Soldering 9\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7 Paste in Hole 10\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8 Robotic Soldering 11\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.9 Advanced Technologies 12\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.9.1 Flip Chip 12\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.9.2 Package on Package 12\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.10 Inspection 13\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.10.1 Solder Paste Inspection (SPI) 13\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.10.2 Solder Joint Inspection 14\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.10.2.1 Automated Optical Inspection (AOI) 14\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.10.2.2 X-ray Inspection 15\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.11 Conclusions 16\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 17\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2 Wave\/Selective Soldering \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003e19\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eGerjan Diepstraten\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1 Introduction 19\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2 Flux 19\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.1 The Function of a Flux 19\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.2 Flux Contents 20\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3 Amount of Flux Application on a Board 20\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4 Flux Handling 21\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5 Flux Application 21\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5.1 Methods to Apply Flux (Wave Soldering) 21\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5.2 Methods to Apply Flux (Selective Soldering) 23\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6 Preheat 24\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6.1 Preheat Process-Heating Methods 24\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6.2 Preheat Temperatures 27\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6.3 Preheat Time 28\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6.4 Controlling Preheat Temperatures 28\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6.5 BoardWarpage Compensation (Selective Soldering) 29\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7 Selective Soldering 29\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7.1 Different Selective Soldering Point to Point Nozzles (Selective Soldering) 29\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7.2 Solder Temperatures (Selective Soldering) 30\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7.3 Dip\/Contact Times (Selective Soldering) 31\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7.4 Drag Conditions (Selective Soldering) 31\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7.5 Nitrogen Environment (Selective Soldering) 31\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7.6 Wave Height Controls (Selective Soldering) 32\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7.7 De-Bridging Tools (Selective Soldering) 32\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7.8 Solder Pot (Selective Soldering) 33\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7.9 Topside Heating during Soldering (Selective Soldering) 34\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7.10 Selective Soldering Dip Process with Nozzle Plates (Selective Soldering) 34\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7.11 Solder Temperatures for Multi-Wave Dip Soldering (Selective Soldering) 35\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7.12 Nitrogen Environment (Selective Soldering) 35\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7.13 Wave Height Control (Selective Soldering) 36\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7.14 Dip Time – Contact Time with Solder (Selective Soldering) 36\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7.15 Solder Flow Acceleration and Deceleration (Selective Soldering) 37\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7.16 De-Bridging Tools (Selective Soldering) 37\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7.17 Pallets (Selective Soldering) 38\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7.18 Conveyor (Selective Soldering) 38\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.8 Wave Soldering 39\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.8.1 Wave Formers (Wave Soldering) 39\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.8.2 Pallets (Wave Soldering) 40\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.8.3 Nitrogen Environment (Wave Soldering) 40\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.8.4 Process Control (Wave Soldering) 41\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.8.5 Conveyor (Wave Soldering) 41\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.9 Conclusions 42\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 42\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3 Lead-Free Rework \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003e43\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eJasbir Bath\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1 Introduction 43\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2 Hand Soldering Rework for SMT and PTH Components 43\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.1 Alloy and Flux Choices 43\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.1.1 Alloys 43\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.1.2 Flux 44\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.2 Soldering Iron Tip Life 44\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.3 Hand Soldering Temperatures and Times 47\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3 BGA\/CSP Rework 50\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3.1 Alloy and Flux Choices 50\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3.1.1 Alloys 50\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3.1.2 Flux 50\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3.2 BGA\/CSP Rework Soldering Temperatures and Times 50\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3.3 Component Temperatures in Relation to IPC\/JEDEC J-STD-020 and Component\/BoardWarpage Standards 52\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3.3.1 IPC\/JEDEC J-STD-020 Standard 52\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3.3.2 ComponentWarpage Standards 52\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3.3.3 BoardWarpage Standards 52\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3.4 Equipment Updates for Lead-Free BGA\/CSP Rework 53\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3.5 Adjacent Component Temperatures 53\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4 Non-standard Component Rework (Including BTC\/QFN) 54\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4.1 Alloy and Flux Choices 54\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4.1.1 Alloys 54\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4.1.2 Flux 54\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4.2 Soldering Temperatures and Times 54\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4.3 Non-standard Component Temperatures in Relation to IPC JEDEC J-STD-020 Standard and ComponentWarpage Standards 55\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4.4 Equipment and Tooling Updates for Lead-Free Non-standard Component Rework 55\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4.5 Adjacent Component Temperatures 56\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4.6 Non-standard Component Rework Solder Joint Reliability 56\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5 PTH (Pin-Through-Hole)Wave Rework 56\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5.1 Alloy and Flux Choices 56\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5.1.1 Alloys 56\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5.1.2 Flux 57\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5.2 Soldering Temperatures and Times 57\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5.3 Component Temperatures in Relation to Industry and Board Standards During PTH Rework 67\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5.3.1 Component Temperature Rating Standards 67\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5.3.2 Bare Board Testing Standards and Methods for PTH Rework 67\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5.4 Equipment Updates for PTH Component Rework 68\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5.5 Adjacent Component Temperatures During PTH Rework 68\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5.6 PTH Component Rework Solder Joint Reliability 68\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5.6.1 Copper Dissolution 68\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5.6.2 Holefill 69\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.6 Conclusions 69\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 70\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4 Solder Paste and Flux Technology \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003e73\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eShantanu Joshi and Peter Borgesen\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1 Introduction 73\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2 Solder Paste 75\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2.1 Water-Soluble Solder Paste 75\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2.2 No-Clean Solder Paste 76\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3 Flux Technology 77\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3.1 Halide-Free and Halide-Containing 77\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4 Composition of Solder Paste 79\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4.1 Alloy 79\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4.2 Flux 82\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4.3 Solder Powder Type 83\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4.3.1 Oxide Layer 84\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5 Characteristics of a Solder Paste 84\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5.1 Printing 84\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5.1.1 Printing Parameters 85\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5.2 Reflow 86\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5.2.1 Wetting\/Spreadability of Lead-Free Solder Paste 86\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5.2.2 Bridging 86\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5.2.3 Micro Solder Balls 86\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5.2.4 Voiding 86\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5.2.5 Head-on-Pillow Component Soldering Defect 88\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5.2.6 Non-Wet Open 90\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5.2.7 Tombstoning 90\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5.3 In-Circuit Test (ICT) Probe Testability 90\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5.4 Flux Reliability Issues 91\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.6 Conclusions 92\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 92\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5 Low Temperature Lead-Free Alloys and Solder Pastes \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003e95\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eRaiyo Aspandiar, Nilesh Badwe, and Kevin Byrd\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1 Introduction 95\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.1 Definition of Low Temperature Solders 95\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.2 Benefits of Low Temperature Soldering 97\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.2.1 Reduced Manufacturing Cost 98\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.2.2 Power Use Savings 98\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.2.3 Environmental Benefits 99\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.2.4 Manufacturing Yield Improvements 100\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.3 Drawbacks 103\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.3.1 Brittleness 103\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.4 Other Low Temperature Metallurgical Systems 103\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2 Development of Robust Bismuth-Based Low Temperature Solder Alloys 105\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.1 Bismuth-Tin (Bi-Sn) Phase Diagram 105\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.2 Mechanical Properties 107\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.3 Physical Properties 108\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.4 Alloy Development Progress 108\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.5 Fluxes for Low Temperature Solders 109\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3 SMT Process Characterization of Sn-Bi Based Solder Pastes 111\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.1 Printability 111\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.2 Reflow Profiles 112\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.3 Rework 113\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.4 Polymeric Reinforcement of Sn-Bi Based Low Temperature Alloys 114\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.4.1 Current Polymeric Reinforcement Strategies 114\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.4.2 Joint Reinforced Pastes (JRP) 118\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.4.3 Polymeric Reinforcement Summary 128\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.5 Mixed SnAgCu-BiSn BGA Solder Joints 128\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.5.1 Formation Mechanism 128\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.5.2 Microstructural Features and Key Characteristics 133\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.5.3 Soldering Process Optimization 134\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.5.4 Possible Defects 135\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.6 Solder Joint Reliability 140\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.7 Conclusions 145\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.8 Future Development and Trends 146\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 149\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e6 High Temperature Lead-Free Bonding Materials – The Need, the Potential Candidates and the Challenges \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003e155\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eHongwen Zhang and Ning-Cheng Lee\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.1 Introduction 155\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2 Solder Materials 159\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2.1 Gold-Based Solders 159\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2.2 Bismuth-Rich Solders 160\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2.2.1 Design of Bismuth-Rich Solders 160\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2.2.2 Mechanical Behavior of BiAgX 163\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2.2.3 Microstructure and Microstructural Evolution of BiAgX Joint 167\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2.3 Tin-Antimony (Sn-Sb) High Temperature Solders 174\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2.4 Zinc-Aluminum Solders 176\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3 Silver (Ag)-Sintering Materials 178\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.4 Transient Liquid Phase Bonding Materials\/Technique 181\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5 Summary 182\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcknowledgment 185\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 185\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7 Lead (Pb)-Free Solders for High Reliability and High-Performance Applications \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003e191\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eRichard J. Coyle\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1 Evolution of Commercial Lead (Pb)-Free Solder Alloys 191\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1.1 First Generation Commercial Pb-Free Solders 191\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1.2 Second Generation Commercial Pb-Free Solders 192\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1.3 Third Generation Commercial Pb-Free Solders 196\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2 Third Generation Alloy Research and Development 196\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.1 Limitations of Sn-Ag-Cu Solder Alloys 196\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.2 Emergence of Commercial Third Generation Alloys 202\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.2.1 The Genesis of 3rd Generation Alloy Development 202\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.2.2 An Expanding Class of 3rd Generation Alloys 202\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.3 Metallurgical Considerations 203\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.3.1 Antimony (Sb) Additions to Tin (Sn) 206\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.3.2 Indium (In) Additions to Tin (Sn) 207\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.3.3 Bismuth (Bi) Additions to Tin (Sn) 209\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3 Reliability Testing Third Generation Commercial Pb-Free Solders 210\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3.1 Thermal Fatigue Evaluations 210\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3.2 iNEMI\/HDPUG Third Generation Alloy Pb-Free Thermal Fatigue Project 213\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3.3 Microstructure and Reliability of Third Generation Alloys 219\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4 Reliability Gaps and Suggestions for AdditionalWork 223\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.1 Root Cause of Interfacial Fractures 223\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.2 Effect of Component Attributes on Thermal Fatigue 224\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.3 Effect of Surface Finish on Thermal Fatigue 224\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.4 Thermomechanical Test Parameters and Test Outcomes 225\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.4.1 Thermal Cycling Dwell Time 225\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.4.2 Preconditioning (Isothermal Aging) 225\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.4.3 Thermal Cycling of Mixed Metallurgy BGA Assemblies 226\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.4.4 Thermal Shock or Aggressive Thermal Cycling 226\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.5 Reliability Under Mechanical Loading: Drop\/Shock, and Vibration 227\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.6 Solder Alloy Microstructure and Reliability 230\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.7 Summary of Suggestions for Additional Investigation 231\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5 Conclusions 232\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcknowledgments 234\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 234\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e8 Lead-Free Printed Wiring Board Surface Finishes \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003e249\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eRick Nichols\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.1 Introduction: Why a Surface Finish is Needed 249\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2 Surface Finishes in the Market 250\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.3 Application Perspective 255\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4 A Description of Final Finishes 261\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.1 Hot Air Solder Leveling (HASL) 263\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.1.1 Process Complexity 263\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.1.2 Process Description 265\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.1.3 Issues and Remedies 267\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.1.4 Summary 267\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.2 High Temperature OSP 267\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.2.1 Process Complexity 267\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.2.2 Process Description 269\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.2.3 Issues and Remedies 270\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.2.4 Summary 270\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.3 Immersion Tin 271\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.3.1 Process Complexity 271\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.3.2 Process Description 273\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.3.3 Issues and Remedies 275\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.3.4 Summary 276\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.4 Immersion Silver 276\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.4.1 Process Complexity 277\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.4.2 Process Description 279\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.4.3 Issues and Remedies 280\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.4.4 Summary 281\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.5 Electroless Nickel Immersion Gold (ENIG) 281\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.5.1 Process Complexity 281\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.5.2 Process Description 283\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.5.3 Issues and Remedies 285\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.5.4 Summary 286\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.6 Electroless Nickel\/Electroless Palladium\/Immersion Gold (ENEPIG) 287\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.6.1 Process Complexity 287\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.6.2 Process Description 289\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.6.3 Issues and Remedies 290\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.6.4 Summary 291\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.7 Electroless Nickel Autocatalytic Gold (ENAG) 291\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.7.1 Process Complexity 292\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.7.2 Process Description 293\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.7.3 Issues and Remedies 295\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.7.4 Summary 295\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.8 Electroless Palladium Autocatalytic Gold (EPAG) 295\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.8.1 Process Complexity 295\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.8.2 Process Description 297\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.8.3 Issues and Remedies 298\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.8.4 Summary 299\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.9 Electrolytic Nickel Electrolytic Gold 299\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.9.1 Process Complexity 299\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.9.2 Process Description 301\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.9.3 Issues and Remedies 301\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.9.4 Summary 302\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5 Conclusions 303\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 304\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9 PCB Laminates (Including High Speed Requirements) \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003e307\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eKarl Sauter and Silvio Bertling\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.1 Introduction 307\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2 Manufacturing Background 307\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3 PCB Fabrication Design and Laminate Manufacturing Factors Affecting Yield and Reliability 308\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.1 High Frequency Loss 308\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.2 Mixed Dielectric 308\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.3 Back-Drilling 309\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.4 Aspect Ratio 309\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.5 PCB Fabrication 309\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.6 Press Lamination 310\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.7 Moisture Content 310\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.8 Laminate Material 311\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4 Assembly Factors Affecting Yields and Long-Term Reliability for Laminate Materials 311\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4.1 Reflow Temperature 311\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4.2 Assembly Components 312\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4.3 Thermal Stress 312\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.5 Copper Foil Trends (by Silvio Bertling) 312\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.6 High Frequency\/High Speed and Other Trends Affecting Laminate Materials 316\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.6.1 High Speed Standards 316\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.6.2 Adhesion Treatment (Prior to Press Lamination) 317\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.6.3 Laminate Material Filler Content 317\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.6.4 GlassWeave Effect 317\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.6.5 Halogen-Free 318\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.7 Conclusions 318\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 319\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10 Underfills and Encapsulants Used in Lead-Free Electronic Assembly \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003e321\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eBrian J. Toleno\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.1 Introduction 321\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2 Rheology 322\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2.1 Rheological Response and Behavior 323\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2.1.1 Thixotropy 325\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2.2 Measuring Rheology 327\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2.2.1 Spindle Type Viscometry 327\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2.2.2 Cone and Plate Rheometry 328\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.3 Curing of Adhesive Systems 330\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.3.1 Thermal Cure 330\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.3.2 Ultraviolet (UV) Light Curing 335\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.3.3 Moisture Cure 338\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.4 Glass Transition Temperature 339\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.5 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (CTE) 341\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.6 Young’s Modulus (E) 343\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7 Applications 344\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7.1 Underfills 344\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7.1.1 Capillary Underfill 345\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7.1.2 Fluxing (No-Flow) Underfill 348\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7.1.3 Removable\/Reworkable Underfill 349\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7.1.4 Staking or Corner Bond Underfill 349\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7.2 Encapsulant Materials 350\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7.2.1 Glob Top 351\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7.2.2 Component Encapsulation 351\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7.2.3 Application 353\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7.2.4 Low-Pressure Molding 355\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8 Conclusions 355\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 355\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e11 Thermal Cycling and General Reliability Considerations \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003e359\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eMaxim Serebreni\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.1 Introduction to Thermal Cycling of Electronics 359\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.1.1 Influence of Solder Alloy Composition and Microstructure on Thermal Cycling Reliability 362\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2 Influence of Package Type and Thermal Cycling Profile 363\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2.1 Influence of Board and Pad Design 366\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3 Fatigue Life Prediction Models 371\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.1 Empirical Models and Acceleration Factors 371\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.2 Semi-empirical Models 372\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.3 Finite Element Analysis (FEA) Based Fatigue Life Predictions 373\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4 Conclusions 376\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 377\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12 Intermetallic Compounds \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003e381\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eAlyssa Yaeger, Travis Dale, Elizabeth McClamrock, Ganesh Subbarayan, and Carol Handwerker\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.1 Introduction 381\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.1.1 Solders 382\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.1.2 Interaction with Substrates 382\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.2 Setting the Stage 384\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.2.1 Mechanical and Thermomechanical Response of Solder Joints 386\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3 Common Lead-Free Solder Alloy Systems 392\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3.1 Solder Joints Formed Between Sn-Cu, Sn-Ag, and Sn-Ag-Cu Solder Alloys and Copper Surface Finishes 396\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3.1.1 Sn-Cu Solder on Copper 396\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3.1.2 Sn-Ag and Sn-Ag-Cu Solder Alloys on Copper 399\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3.2 Solder Joints Formed Between Sn-Cu, Sn-Ag, and Sn-Ag-Cu Alloys and Nickel Surface Finishes 408\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3.2.1 Ni-Sn 408\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3.2.2 Sn-Ag Solder Alloys on Nickel 411\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3.2.3 Spalling 415\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3.2.4 Effects of Phosphorus Concentration in ENIG on Solder Joint Reliability 416\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3.3 Au-Sn 417\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4 High Lead – Exemption 422\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.5 Conclusions 423\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 423\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e13 Conformal Coatings \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003e429\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eJason Keeping\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.1 Introduction 429\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.2 Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Requirements 430\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3 Overview of Types of Conformal Coatings 430\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3.1 Types of Conformal Coatings 431\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3.1.1 Acrylic Resins (Type AR) 432\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3.1.2 Urethane Resins (Type UR) 433\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3.1.3 Epoxy Resins (Type ER) 433\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3.1.4 Silicone Resins (Type SR) 435\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3.1.5 Para-xylylene (Type XY) 436\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3.1.6 Synthetic Rubber (Type SC) 437\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3.1.7 Ultra-Thin (Type UT) 438\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4 Preparatory Steps Necessary to Ensure a Successful Coating Process 440\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4.1 Assembly Cleaning 440\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4.2 Assembly Masking 440\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4.3 Priming and Other Surface Treatments 441\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4.3.1 Measuring Surface Energy 441\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4.3.2 Water Drop Contact Angle 447\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4.4 Bake-Out 448\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5 Various Methods of Applying Conformal Coating 449\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5.1 Manual Coating 449\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5.2 Dip 449\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5.3 Hand Spray 450\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5.4 Automatic Spray 451\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5.5 Selective Coating 451\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5.6 Vapor Deposition 451\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6 Aspects for Cure, Inspection, and Demasking 453\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6.1 Cure 453\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6.1.1 Solvent Evaporation 453\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6.1.2 Room Temperature Vulcanization (RTV) 454\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6.1.3 Heat Cure 454\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6.1.4 UV Cure 454\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6.1.5 Catalyzed 454\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6.2 UV Inspection 455\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6.3 Demasking 455\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.7 Repair and Rework Processes 456\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.7.1 Chemical 456\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.7.2 Thermal 456\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.7.3 Mechanical 457\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.7.4 Abrasion (Micro-Abrasion) 457\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.7.5 Plasma Etch 457\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.8 Design Guidance on When and Where Conformal Coating is Required, and Which Physical Characteristics and Properties are Important to Consider 457\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.8.1 Is Conformal Coating Required? 458\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.8.1.1 Why Use It? 458\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.8.1.2 Why Not Use Conformal Coating? 459\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.8.2 Desirable Material Properties 459\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.8.3 Areas to Mask 461\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.9 Long-Term Reliability and Testing 462\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.10 Conclusions 462\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.11 Future Work 463\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 463\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndex 467\u003c\/p\u003e","brand":"John Wiley \u0026 Sons Inc","offers":[{"title":"Default Title","offer_id":49528856674647,"sku":"9781119482031","price":98.06,"currency_code":"GBP","in_stock":true}],"thumbnail_url":"\/\/cdn.shopify.com\/s\/files\/1\/0817\/1739\/5799\/files\/9781119482031.jpg?v=1731873296","url":"https:\/\/bookcurl.com\/products\/leadfree-soldering-process-development-and-reliability-9781119482031","provider":"Book 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