{"product_id":"extreme-weather-9781118949955","title":"Extreme Weather","description":"\u003cb\u003eBook Synopsis\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis book is about weather extremes in the United Kingdom. It presents fascinating and detailed insights into \u003ci\u003etornadoes\u003c\/i\u003e (supercell and non-supercell tornadoes, historical and contemporary case studies, frequency and spatial distributions, and unique data on extreme events); \u003ci\u003ethunderstorms\u003c\/i\u003e (epic event analysis and observing); \u003ci\u003ehailstorms\u003c\/i\u003e (intensity, distributions and frequency of high magnitude events); \u003ci\u003elightning\u003c\/i\u003e (lightning as a hazard, impacts and injuries); \u003ci\u003eball lightning\u003c\/i\u003e (definitions, impacts and case studies); \u003ci\u003eflooding\u003c\/i\u003e (historical and contemporary analysis, extreme rainfall and flash flooding); \u003ci\u003esnowfalls\u003c\/i\u003e (heavy snowfall days and events). It also looks at researching weather extremes, provides guidance on performing post-storm \u003ci\u003esite investigations\u003c\/i\u003e and details what is involved in \u003ci\u003esevere weather forecasting\u003c\/i\u003e. It is written by members, directors and past and present Heads of the research group the Tornado and Storm Research Orga\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cb\u003eTable of Contents\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cp\u003eNotes on Contributors xi\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eForeword xiii\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePreface xv\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbout the Companion Website xvii\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1 Researching Extreme Weather in the United Kingdom and Ireland: The History of the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation, 1974–2014 1\u003cbr\u003e \u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eG. Terence Meaden\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1 Introduction: The Early Years 1\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2 International T‐Scale: Theoretical Basis 2\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2.1 Hailstorm Research 3\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2.2 Temperature Extremes for the British Isles 3\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3 Tornado Research Organisation 4\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4 The Inaugural Issue of The Journal of Meteorology 4\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5 Storm‐Damage Site and Track Investigations 6\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6 Birmingham Tornado of 28 July 2005 8\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7 TORRO Conferences 8\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8 The Future 11\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements 13\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditional information 13\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 13\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePart I Tornadoes 15\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2 Historical tornadoes in the British Isles 17\u003cbr\u003e \u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003ePaul R. Brown and G. Terence Meaden\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1 Introduction 17\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2 Etymology of the Word Tornado 17\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3 Terminology 18\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4 Accuracy and Completeness of the Records 19\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5 Analysis of Historical Tornadoes 20\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6 Examples of Historical Tornado Reports 21\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7 Concluding Remarks 30\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 30\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3 Supercell and Non‐supercell Tornadoes in the United Kingdom and Ireland 31\u003cbr\u003e \u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eMatt Clark and David Smart\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1 Introduction 31\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2 Basic Structure and Life Cycle of a Storm Cell 32\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3 Storm Mode: An Overview of Single‐Cell, Multicell and Supercell Convection 32\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4 Tornadoes in Supercell and Non‐supercell Storms 36\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4.1 Synoptic Situations Associated with Tornadoes in the United Kingdom 40\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5 Towards a Climatology of Tornadoes by Synoptic Type 43\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.6 Monthly and Annual Frequencies of Tornadoes by Synoptic Type 43\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.7 Spatial Distribution of Tornadoes by Synoptic Type 44\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.8 Morphology of Tornadic Storms 46\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.9 Association of Supercells with Giant Hail 47\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.10 Case Studies of Supercell and Non‐supercell Tornadoes 48\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.10.1 Case 1: The Cold Front of 29 November 2011 48\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.10.2 Case 2: The English Midlands Supercells of 28 June 2012 51\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.10.3 Case 3: The West Cornwall Supercell of 16 December 2012 52\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.11 Concluding Remarks 55\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 58\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4 Tornadoes in the United Kingdom and Ireland: Frequency and Spatial Distribution 61\u003cbr\u003e \u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003ePeter Kirk, Tim Prosser, and David Smart\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1 Introduction 61\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2 The TORRO Database 62\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3 Tornado Frequency for the United Kingdom and Ireland: 1981–2010 63\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3.1 Annual Number of Tornadoes and Tornado Days 63\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3.2 Season and Month of Occurrence 64\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3.3 Hour of Occurrence 65\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3.4 Intensities 65\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3.5 Track Lengths 65\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3.6 Maximum Track Widths 65\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3.7 Directions of Travel 66\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4 Spatial Distribution of Tornadoes in the United Kingdom and Ireland 66\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4.1 Simple Mapping of the Database 66\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5 Issues with Mapping 66\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.6 Kernel Density Mapping of Tornado Distribution 70\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.7 The ‘London Metropolitan’ Anomaly 70\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.8 The Isle of Wight and South Coast Anomaly 72\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.9 Concluding Remarks 73\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements 74\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditional Information 74\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 75\u003cbr\u003e \u003cb\u003e5 Tornado Extremes in the United Kingdom: The Earliest, Longest, Widest, Severest and Deadliest 77\u003cbr\u003e \u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eMike Rowe\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1 Introduction 77\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2 Earliest Tornado 77\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3 Other Whirlwinds (First UK Record Only) 79\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.4 Longest Tornado Track 80\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.5 Widest Tornado Track 82\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.6 Severest Tornado 83\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.7 Largest Outbreaks 88\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.8 Highest Death Toll 89\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.9 Concluding Remarks 89\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements 89\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 89\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e6 Site Investigations of Tornado Events 91\u003cbr\u003e \u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eJohn Tyrrell\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.1 Introduction 91\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2 Getting Started: How Site Investigations Come About 92\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3 Site Investigation Methods 92\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.4 Site Investigation Outcomes: The Growing Understanding of UK Tornadoes 94\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5 Site Investigation Experience 101\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.6 Concluding Remarks 102\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements 103\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 103\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePart II Thunderstorms and Lightning 105\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7 Epic Thunderstorms in Britain and Ireland 107\u003cbr\u003e \u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eJonathan D.C. Webb\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1 Introduction 107\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2 Selected Epic Thunderstorm Events 109\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.1 2–3 August 1879 109\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.2 5–10 June 1910 110\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.3 7–10 July 1923 114\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.4 17–18 July 1926 114\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.5 28–29 August 1930 114\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.6 18–22 June 1936 116\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.7 The West Country Thunderstorm of 4 August 1938 119\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.8 5 September 1958 123\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.9 22–24 June 1960 125\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.10 8–9 August 1975 125\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.11 13–14 June 1977 126\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.12 25–26 July 1985 127\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.13 24 May 1989 128\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.14 8–9 August 1992 131\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.15 24 June 1994 132\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3 Concluding Remarks 132\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements 132\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 132\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e8 Thunderstorm Observing in the United Kingdom: A Personal Diary of Days with Thunder 1953–2013 135\u003cbr\u003e \u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eBob Prichard\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.1 Introduction 135\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2 Early Observations 135\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2.1 Thunderstorm Observing 136\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.3 Thunderstorms of the 1960s 137\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.3.1 The ‘Days with Thunder Heard’ Statistic 140\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.3.2 Back to the 1960s 140\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4 Thunderstorms of the 1970s 141\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5 Thunderstorms of the 1980s 143\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.6 The Forecasting of Thunderstorms 145\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.7 Back to the 1980s 146\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.8 Thunderstorms of the 1990s 147\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.9 The Most Recent Thunderstorms: 2000–2013 150\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.10 Concluding Remarks 154\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 154\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9 Severe Hailstorms in the United Kingdom and Ireland: A Climatological Survey with Recent and Historical Case Studies 155\u003cbr\u003e \u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eJonathan D.C. Webb and Derek M. Elsom\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.1 Introduction 155\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.1.1 Establishment of a Tornado and Storm Research Organisation Research Database of Hail Events 155\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2 Assessing the Intensity of Hail Falls 155\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2.1 Hailstorm Intensity Scale 155\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2.2 Kinetic Energy 156\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2.3 Hailstone Size and Damage 156\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2.4 Other Factors Affecting Damage 156\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3 Annual Frequency of Hail 157\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.1 All Significant, Damaging Hailstorms 157\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.2 Frequency of Extreme, Destructive Hailstorms 158\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.3 Comparisons with Continental Europe 159\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4 Seasonal Occurrence of Hail 159\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4.1 General Seasonal Incidence of Hail and Damaging Hailstorms 159\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4.2 Storms of H5 Intensity or More 159\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4.3 Comparison with the Incidence of Thunderstorms 159\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.5 Geographical Distribution 160\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.5.1 Storms of H2 Intensity or More 160\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.5.2 Geographical Distribution of Storms of H5 Intensity or More 161\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.5.3 Point Frequencies 161\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.5.4 European Comparisons 161\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.6 Hailstorm Characteristics 161\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.6.1 Hail Swathes 161\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.6.2 Radar and Hail Swathe Identification 163\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.6.3 Results of Hail Swathe Analyses 163\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.7 Synoptic Weather Types and Hailstorms 164\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.7.1 Specific Synoptic Background to Hailstorms 164\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.8 Hour‐of‐Day Distribution 167\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.9 Summary of TORRO’s Overall Findings 168\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10 Twenty of the Most Severe Hailstorms 169\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10.1 1687: The Alvanley Storm 169\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10.2 1697: Remarkable Late Spring Storms 169\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10.3 1763: The Great Kent Storm of 19 August 169\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10.4 1808: The Great Somerset Hailstorm of 15 July 169\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10.5 1818: Stronsay, Orkney, 24 July 170\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10.6 1843: The Great Hailstorm of 9 August 170\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10.7 1893: Northern England and Southern Scotland on 8 July 172\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10.8 1897: The Diamond Jubilee Storm of 24 June 174\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10.9 1915: 4 July 175\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10.10 1935: 22 September (Sometimes Referred to as the ‘Great Northamptonshire Hailstorm’) 177\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10.11 1958: The Horsham Hailstorm of 5 September 178\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10.12 1959: 9–11 July (Including the ‘Wokingham Storm’) 179\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10.13 1967: The Wiltshire Hailstorm of 13 July 181\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10.14 1968: The ‘Dust Fall’ Storms of 1–2 July 181\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10.15 1983: South Coast Hailstorms of 5 June 185\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10.16 1983: Violent Hailstorms in North‐West England on 7 June 185\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10.17 1985: The Essex ‘Dunmow’ Hailstorm of 26 May 186\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10.18 1996: The Storms of 7 June 187\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10.19 1997: The Severe Storms of FA Cup Final on Saturday, 17 May 189\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10.20 2012: The Destructive English Midlands Hailstorm of 28 June 191\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.11 Concluding Remarks 191\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements 193\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 193\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10 Lightning Impacts in the United Kingdom and Ireland 195\u003cbr\u003e \u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eDerek M. Elsom and Jonathan D.C. Webb\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.1 Lightning as a Weather Hazard 195\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2 Historical Research into Lightning 196\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.3 Research into Lightning Impacts 197\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.4 Annual Number of Lightning Incidents Causing Injuries and Deaths 198\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.5 Lightning Injuries 198\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.6 Electrical Routes by Which Lightning Causes Injuries 199\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7 Lightning Strikes to Groups of People 200\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8 Locations to Avoid during Thunderstorms 201\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.9 Lightning Incidents Affecting People Indoors 201\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10 The Frequency with which Lightning Strikes a Person 202\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.11 Fewer Deaths from Lightning Over Time 203\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.12 Lightning Strikes to Animals 204\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.13 Lightning Impacts on Aircraft and Motor Vehicles 205\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.14 Increasing Awareness of the Lightning Risk 206\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements 206\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 206\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e11 Ball Lightning Research in the United Kingdom 209\u003cbr\u003e \u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eMark Stenhoff and Adrian James\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.1 Introduction 209\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2 Definitions 209\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2.1 Lightning 209\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2.2 Ball Lightning 210\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3 What Ball Lightning Is Not 210\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4 Ambiguity: Ball Lightning, Fireballs, Meteors and Meteorites 211\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.5 Early Beliefs about Lightning and Ball Lightning 212\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.6 Early Reports of Ball Lightning 213\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.6.1 Ball Lightning over Land 213\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.6.2 Ball Lightning over Rivers and the Sea 214\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.6.3 Ball Lightning Associated with Churches 215\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.6.4 Ball Lightning within Houses 216\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.6.5 Ball Lightning as a Precursor to Cloud‐to‐Ground Lightning 217\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7 Interpreting Early Reports 217\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.1 1833: Early British Opinion about the Nature of Ball Lightning by Luke Howard FRS (1772–1864) 217\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.2 1837–1859: Sur le Tonnerre and Other Works by François Arago (1786–1853) 217\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.3 1838: Comments on Ball Lightning by Michael Faraday Frs (1791–1867) 218\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.4 1842: ‘On the Nature of Thunderstorms’ by Sir William Snow Harris FRS (1791–1867) 218\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.5 1854–1868: English Translations of French Works 219\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.6 The Late 19th Century: Ball Lightning, Spiritualism and Parapsychology 219\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.7 1921: The Meteorological Office ‘Ball Lightning Enquiry’ 220\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.8 1923: Survey of Ball Lightning Reports 220\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.9 1870–1934: Speculations on the Nature of Ball Lightning 220\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.10 1936: Does Ball Lightning Exist? 220\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.11 1936–1937: The ‘Tub‐of‐Water’ Event and the Estimated Energy Content of Ball Lightning 220\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.12 1937–1957: Quantum‐Mechanical and Nuclear Hypotheses for Ball Lightning 221\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.13 1955–1972: Plasma Hypotheses for Ball Lightning 222\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.14 1964: The Flight of Thunderbolts by Sir Basil Schonland FRS 222\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.15 1969: Eminent UK Scientists Report Ball Lightning in Aircraft 222\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.16 1969: The Taming of the Thunderbolts by C. Maxwell Cade and Delphine Davis 223\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.17 1971: Ball Lightning: An Optical Illusion? 223\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.18 1971: Micrometeorites of Antimatter? 223\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.19 1972–1995: Crew’s Ionised Jet‐Stream Hypothesis for Ball Lightning (and Some UFOs) 224\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.20 1974: TORRO and the Journal of Meteorology 224\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.21 1976: A Close Encounter with a Fiery Ball Raises Questions of Ball Lightning Energy 224\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.22 Ball Lightning as Electromagnetic Radiation 224\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.23 Reviews of Ball Lightning 225\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.24 Ball Lightning Reported at Cambridge University 226\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.25 1985–1999: The TORRO Ball Lightning Division 226\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.26 1999: Ball lightning: An Unexplained Phenomenon in Atmospheric Physics by Mark Stenhoff 227\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.27 2002: Royal Society Theme Issue on Ball Lightning 227\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.28 2006: Publication of Ministry of Defence: Unidentified Aerial Phenomena in the UK Air Defence Region (2000) 227\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7.29 2000–2014: TORRO Ball Lightning Division 228\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.8 A Selection of Ball Lightning Reports Recorded by TORRO 2000–2014 228\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.8.1 Ball Lightning inside Houses 228\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.8.2 Experienced Observer 229\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.8.3 Earthquake Ball Lightning? 229\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.8.4 A Recent Ball Lightning Event Reported to TORRO 229\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.9 2014: Ball Lightning in the UK Media 230\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.10 Concluding Remarks 230\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcknowledgments 230\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 230\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePart III EXTREMES 235\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12 Forecasting Severe Weather in the United Kingdom and Ireland 237\u003cbr\u003e \u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003ePaul Knightley\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.1 Introduction 237\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.2 Modern Forecasting 238\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3 Severe Storm Forecasting in the United States 238\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4 Severe Storm Forecasting Elsewhere 239\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.5 Forecasting Techniques 239\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.6 The Ingredients‐Based Approach 240\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.6.1 Moisture 240\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.6.2 Instability 240\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.6.3 Lift 240\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.6.4 Wind Shear 240\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.7 TORRO’s Forecasts 241\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.8 Forecasting Severe Weather: 28 June 2012 241\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.8.1 Background 241\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.9 Concluding Remarks 245\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements 246\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 246\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e13 Extreme Flooding in the United Kingdom and Ireland: The Early Years, ad 1 to ad 1300 247\u003cbr\u003e \u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eRobert K. Doe\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.1 Introduction 247\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.2 Sources of Evidence 247\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3 The Early Years – 1st–10th Centuries 248\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4 Extreme Flooding in the 11th Century 249\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5 Extreme Flooding in the 12th Century 250\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6 Extreme Flooding in the 13th Century 251\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.7 Concluding Remarks 259\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements 259\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 259\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e14 Extreme Rainfall and Flash Floods in the United Kingdom and Ireland: Synoptic Patterns and Selected Case Studies 261\u003cbr\u003e \u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eJohn Mason, Paul R. Brown, Jonathan D.C. Webb, and Robert K. Doe\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.1 Introduction 261\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2 Severe Dynamic Rainfalls 261\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3 Hybrid Rainfalls – Dynamic Precipitation with Embedded Convective Cells 264\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.4 Severe Convective Rainfalls 269\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.5 Gwynedd, North Wales, UK, 3 July 2001 270\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.6 Boscastle, Cornwall, UK, 16 August 2004 272\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.7 Holmfirth, Yorkshire, UK, 29 May 1944 274\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.8 Ottery St. Mary, Devon, UK, 30 October 2008 278\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.9 Concluding Remarks 280\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements 281\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 281\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e15 Heavy Snowfalls Across Great Britain 283\u003cbr\u003e \u003c\/b\u003e\u003ci\u003eRichard Wild\u003c\/i\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.1 Introduction 283\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.2 Definitions 283\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.3 Synoptic Systems and Heavy Snowfalls 283\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.4 Snowfall Climatology of Great Britain 284\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.5 Sources of Data 284\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6 Snow Depths and Days with Snowfall 284\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7 Spatial Methodology for Heavy Snowfall Events 285\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.1 LWT Catalogue 285\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.8 Heavy Snowfall Events over Great Britain 285\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9 Heavy Snowfalls 1861–1869 286\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9.1 20 February 1865 286\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.10 Heavy Snowfalls 1870–1879 286\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.11 Heavy Snowfalls 1880–1889 286\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.11.1 18–19 January 1881 286\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.12 Heavy Snowfalls 1890–1899 287\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.12.1 9–13 March 1891 287\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.13 Heavy Snowfalls 1900–1909 287\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.14 Heavy Snowfalls 1910–1919 287\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.14.1 11–12 January 1913 287\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.15 Heavy Snowfalls 1920–1929 288\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.15.1 25 December 1923 288\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.15.2 15–16 February 1929 288\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.16 Heavy Snowfalls 1930–1939 288\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.17 Heavy Snowfalls 1940–1949 288\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.17.1 26–30 January 1940 288\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.17.2 18–20 February 1941 288\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.17.3 26–27 March 1941 289\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.18 Heavy Snowfalls 1950–1959 289\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.18.1 8 February 1955 289\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.19 Heavy Snowfalls 1960–1969 289\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.20 Heavy Snowfalls 1970–1979 289\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.21 Heavy Snowfalls 1980–1989 289\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.22 Heavy Snowfalls 1990–1999 289\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.23 Heavy Snowfall Frequencies in Great Britain 1861–1999 289\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.23.1 Numbers of Heavy Snowfall Days 290\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.23.2 Mean Length (In Days) of Heavy Snowfall Events 291\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.24 LWTs and Heavy Snowfalls 292\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.24.1 LWT Frequency by Decade 292\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.24.2 LWT Frequency by Month and Season 293\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.24.3 LWT Frequencies Before, During and After the Heavy Snowfall Day 293\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.25 Depressions and Heavy Snowfalls 293\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.25.1 Depression Trajectories Associated with Heavy Snowfall Events 293\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.25.2 Depression Traffic Associated with Heavy Snowfall Events 293\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.26 Fronts Associated with Heavy Snowfall Days (1937–1999) 296\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.26.1 Geographical Variations in Meteorological Fronts 296\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.26.2 Relationship Between Fronts and LWT 297\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.27 Concluding Remarks 297\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements 298\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences 298\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAppendices\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAppendix A: Data (Web Material) Appendix B: Selected Pictures from Conferences and Meetings 301\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAppendix C: Tornadoes in the United Kingdom and Ireland 1054–2013 319\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAppendix D: Data (Web Material) Selected Name Index 321\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubject Index 323            \u003c\/p\u003e","brand":"John Wiley and Sons Ltd","offers":[{"title":"Default Title","offer_id":49406954209623,"sku":"9781118949955","price":999.99,"currency_code":"GBP","in_stock":false}],"url":"https:\/\/bookcurl.com\/products\/extreme-weather-9781118949955","provider":"Book Curl","version":"1.0","type":"link"}