{"product_id":"environmental-chemistry-9781119650911","title":"Environmental Chemistry","description":"\u003cb\u003eBook Synopsis\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe most comprehensive and up-to-date volume on environmental chemistry available today, this is the standard reference for any chemical or environmental engineer.\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis book is a very comprehensive project designed to provide complete information about environmental chemistry, including air, water, soil and all life forms on earth. The complete chemical composition and all the essential components of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, lithosphere and biosphere are discussed in detail. Numerous forms of pollutants and their toxic effects along with sustainable solutions are provided.\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot just covering the basics of environmental chemistry, the authors discuss many specific areas and issues, and they provide practical solutions. The problems of non-renewable energy processes and the merits of renewable energy processes along with future fuels are discussed in detail, making this volume a comprehensive collaboration of many other relevant fields which tries to\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cb\u003eTable of Contents\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcknowledgments xxiii\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1 Introduction to Environmental Chemistry 1\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1 Beginning of the Universe 1\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2 Plank’s Time 2\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3 Components of Solar System 3\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4 Electromagnetic Spectrum and Solar Radiations 5\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4.1 Types of Electromagnetic Radiations 5\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4.1.1 Cosmic Rays 5\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4.1.2 Gamma Rays 6\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4.1.3 X-Rays 6\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4.1.4 Ultra-Violet Region 6\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4.1.5 Visible Region 7\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4.1.6 Infra-Red Region 7\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4.1.7 Terahertz Region 7\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4.1.8 Microwave Region 8\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4.1.9 Radiowave Region 8\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5 Evolution of Environmental Segments 8\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5.1 Evolution of Atmosphere 8\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5.1.1 First Stage of Atmospheric Evolution 9\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5.1.2 Second Stage of Atmospheric Evolution 9\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5.1.3 Third Stage of Atmospheric Evolution 9\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5.2 Evolution of Hydrosphere 10\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5.3 Evolution of Lithosphere\/Geosphere 10\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5.4 Evolution of Biosphere 11\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6 Environmental Segments 11\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7 Scope of Environmental Chemistry in Modern World 12\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7.1 Pollution 12\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7.2 Climate Change 12\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7.3 Global Warming 12\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7.4 Deforestation 13\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7.5 Overpopulation 13\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7.6 Industrial and Household Waste 13\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7.7 Acid Rain 13\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7.8 Ozone Layer Depletion 14\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7.9 Genetic Engineering 14\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7.10 Urban Sprawl 14\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8 Solutions of Environmental Problems 14\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8.1 Green Chemistry 15\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8.2 Renewable Energy Processes 15\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8.3 Biofuels 15\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8.4 Role of Biotechnology 16\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2 Atmosphere 17\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1 Introduction to Atmosphere 17\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1.1 Layers of Atmosphere 18\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1.1.1 Troposphere 18\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1.1.2 Stratosphere 19\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1.1.3 Mesosphere 20\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1.1.4 Thermosphere 20\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1.1.5 Exosphere 21\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1.2 Importance of Atmosphere 21\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1.3 Components of Atmosphere 22\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1.3.1 Primary Gases 23\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1.3.2 Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) 23\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1.3.3 Reactive Gases 24\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1.3.4 Aerosols 28\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1.3.5 Deviations with Height 28\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1.3.6 Deviations with Latitude and Season 29\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1.3.7 Deviations with Time 30\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2 Solar Radiations and Energy Budget 32\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.1 Total Radiations of Sun 32\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.1.1 Solar Output 32\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.1.2 Distance from Sun 34\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.1.3 Altitude of Sun 35\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.1.4 Day Length 35\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.2 Effects of Solar Radiations 35\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.2.1 Transference of Energy 35\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.2.2 Effect of Atmosphere 36\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.2.3 Effect of Cloud Cover 37\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.2.4 Effect of Latitude 37\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.2.5 Effect of Land and Sea 38\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.2.6 Effect of Elevation 40\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.2.7 Temperature Variations with Height 40\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.3 IR Radiations and Greenhouse Effects 41\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.4 Earth’s Heat Budget 43\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3 Atmospheric Moisture Budget 44\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3.1 Condensation 44\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3.2 Precipitation 44\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3.2.1 Forms of Precipitation 45\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3.2.2 Characteristics of Precipitation 46\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3.2.3 Pattern of Precipitation 46\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4 Variability of Atmosphere 47\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4.1 Cloud Formation 47\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4.1.1 Condensation Nuclei 47\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4.1.2 Types of Clouds 48\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4.1.3 Cloud Cover 54\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4.2 Precipitation Formation 54\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5 Reactions in Atmosphere 55\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5.1 Photochemical Reactions 56\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5.2 Biochemical Reactions 61\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5.3 Acid Base Reactions 62\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5.4 Reactions of Oxygen 63\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5.5 Reactions of Nitrogen 66\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5.6 Reactions of Carbon Dioxide 68\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3 Air Pollution and Control Strategies 71\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1 Introduction to Air Pollution 71\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.1 Particles in Atmosphere 72\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.2 Inorganic Air Pollutants 73\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.2.1 Composition of Particles 74\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.2.2 Fly Ash 75\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.2.3 Asbestos 76\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.2.4 Toxic Heavy Metals 77\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.2.5 Radioactive Particles 79\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.2.6 Effects of Particles 80\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.2.7 Water as Particulate Matter 80\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.3 Oxides of Carbon 81\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.3.1 Sources of Carbon Monoxide 81\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.3.2 Fate of Carbon Monoxide 82\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.3.3 Effects of Carbon Monoxide 82\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.3.4 Controlled Emissions of Carbon Monoxide 83\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.3.5 Sources of Carbon Dioxide 83\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.3.6 Natural Carbon Cycle 85\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.3.7 Chemical Reactions of Carbon Dioxide 85\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.3.8 Ozone Depletion and Greenhouse Effect 86\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.3.9 Impacts on Plant Growth 87\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.3.10 Impacts on Human Health 89\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.3.11 Impacts on Animals 90\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.3.12 Controlled Emissions of Carbon Dioxide 91\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.4 Oxides of Sulphur 91\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.4.1 Reactions of Sulphur Dioxide 92\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.4.2 Effects of Sulphur Dioxide on Ecosystem, Animals and Plants 94\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.4.3 Removal of Sulphur Dioxide 96\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.5 Oxides of Nitrogen 99\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.5.1 Reactions of Oxides of Nitrogen 101\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.5.2 Effects of Oxides of Nitrogen on Ecosystem, Humans and Animals 103\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.5.3 Removal of Oxides of Nitrogen 105\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.6 Acid Rain 106\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.6.1 Emissions of Acidified Chemicals 108\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.6.2 Chemical Processes 109\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.6.3 Acid Deposition 109\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.6.4 Effects of Acid Rain 110\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.6.5 Preventive Measures 111\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.7 Atmospheric Ammonia 111\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.8 Fluorine, Chlorine and Hydrogen Chloride 112\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.9 Hydrogen Sulphide, Carbonyl Sulphide and Carbon Disulphide 113\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.10 Organic Air Pollutants 114\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.10.1 Natural and Anthropogenic Sources 114\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.10.2 Distillation and Fractionation of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) 117\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.11 Reactions of Aryl Hydrocarbons 117\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.12 Nonhydrocarbon Organic Compounds 121\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.12.1 Carbonyl Compounds 121\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.12.2 Miscellaneous Oxygen Compounds 124\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.12.3 Organohalides 126\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.12.4 Organo Sulphur Compounds 130\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.12.5 Organo Nitrogen Compounds 131\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.13 Photochemical Smog 133\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.14 Indoor Air Pollutants 133\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.15 Outdoor Air Pollutants 134\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2 Accidents and Episodes 134\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.1 Smog in London, England (1952) 135\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.2 Radionuclides Emissions, Three Mile Island, United States (1979) 135\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.3 Bhopal Disaster, India (1984) 135\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.4 Chernobyl Legacy, Ukraine (1986) 136\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.5 Smog of Punjab, Pakistan\/India (2016) 136\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3 Air Pollution Control Strategies 136\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3.1 Control of Particulates 137\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3.2 Control of Oxides of Nitrogen 138\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3.3 Control of Sulphur Dioxide 138\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3.4 Control of Mercury 138\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4 Hydrosphere 141\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1 Introduction to Hydrosphere 141\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2 Importance of Hydrosphere 142\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3 Unique Properties of Water 142\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3.1 Water, Ice and Vapors 143\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3.2 Chemical Properties of Water 145\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3.3 Reactions of Water 146\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4 Hydrologic Cycle 148\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5 Characteristics of Water Bodies 149\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.6 Life in Water 150\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.7 Aquatic Chemistry 151\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.8 Gases in Water 153\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.9 Alkalinity 154\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.10 Calcium and Other Metals in Water 155\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.10.1 Hydrated Metals Ions as Acids 156\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.10.2 Contents of Calcium 157\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.11 Complexation and Chelation 157\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.12 Hydrolysis and Complexation of Polyphosphates in Water 160\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.13 Complexation by Humic Substances 162\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.14 Complexation and Redox Processes 164\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.15 Oxidation-Reduction 164\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.16 Chemical Interactions Involving Solids, Gases and Water 165\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.17 Formation of Sediments 165\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.18 Colloidal Particles in Water 167\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.18.1 Occurrence of Colloids 167\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.18.2 Types of Colloidal Particles 167\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.18.3 Colloidal Stability 168\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.19 Colloidal Properties of Clays 170\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.20 Microbial Biochemistry in Water 171\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.20.1 Aquatic Biochemical Processes 172\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5 Water Pollution and Treatment Technologies 173\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1 Water Pollution 173\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.1 Toxic Heavy Metals 175\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.1.1 Cadmium (Cd) 176\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.1.2 Lead (Pb) 176\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.1.3 Mercury (Hg) 177\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.1.4 Beryllium (Be) 178\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.2 Metalloids 178\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.2.1 Arsenic (As) 178\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.2.2 Boron (B) 180\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.3 Organometallic Compounds 181\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.3.1 Organolead Compounds 181\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.3.2 Organonickel Compounds 182\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.3.3 Organomercury Compounds 182\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.3.4 Organoarsenic Compounds 183\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.3.5 Organotin Compounds 183\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.3.6 Organozinc Compounds 184\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.4 Volatile Organic Compounds 185\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.5 Synthetic Organic Compounds 195\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.6 Inorganic Compounds 203\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.7 Pesticides 210\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.7.1 Insecticides 210\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.7.2 Herbicides 215\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.7.3 Fungicides 218\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.7.4 Nematicides 218\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.7.5 Rodenticides 219\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.8 Persistent Organic Pollutants 219\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.9 Eutrophication 225\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.10 Acidity, Alkalinity and Salinity 225\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.11 Oxygen, Oxidants and Reductants 226\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.12 Soaps, Detergents and Detergent Builders 227\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.13 Radionuclides in Aquatic Environment 229\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2 Wastewater Treatment Technologies 230\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.1 Water Treatment and Water Use 231\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.2 Municipal Wastewater Treatment 231\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.3 Treatment of Water for Industrial Use 232\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.4 Sewage\/Municipal Treatment 233\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.4.1 Primary Waste Treatment 233\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.4.2 Secondary Waste Treatment by Biological Processes 234\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.4.3 Tertiary Waste Treatment 236\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.4.4 Physical-Chemical Treatment of Municipal Wastewater 237\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.5 Industrial Wastewater Treatment 238\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.6 Removal of Solids 239\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.7 Removal of Calcium and Magnessium 240\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.8 Removal of Iron and Manganese 244\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.9 Removal of Dissolved Organics 245\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.10 Removal of Herbicides 247\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.11 Removal of Dissolved Inorganics 247\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.11.1 Electrodialysis 248\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.11.2 Ion Exchange 249\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.11.3 Reverse Osmosis 250\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.12 Removal of Phosphorous 250\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.13 Removal of Nitrogen 251\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.14 Sludge 252\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.15 Water Disinfection 254\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.15.1 Chlorine Dioxide 256\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.15.2 Ozone 256\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.16 Natural Water Purification Processes 257\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.17 Industrial Wastewater Treatment by Soil 258\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.18 Wastewater Characteristics of Pulp and Paper Mills 259\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.18.1 Water Pollution by Paper and Pulp Industry 259\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.18.2 Suspended Solids 260\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.18.3 Dissolved Solids Organic Matter 260\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.18.4 Inorganic Matter 260\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.18.5 Chlorine and Chlorine-Based Materials 261\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.18.6 Sulfur, Hydrogen Sulfide and Sulfur Dioxide 261\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.19 Wastewater Treatment Technologies 262\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.19.1 Biological Wastewater Treatment 262\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.19.2 Research and Development in Pollution Control 263\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.20 Water Reuse and Recycling 263\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3 Drinking Water Quality Standards 264\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.1 Colour of Water 264\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.2 Microbial Standards for Drinking Water 264\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.3 Taste and Odour 265\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.4 Turbidity 265\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.5 The pH of Drinking Water 266\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.6 Aluminium (Al) 266\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.7 Antimony (Sb) 267\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.8 Arsenic (As) 267\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.9 Barium (Ba) 267\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.10 Boron (B) 267\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.11 Cadmium (Cd) 268\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.12 Chloride (Cl) 268\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.13 Chromium (Cr) 268\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.14 Copper (Cu) 268\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.15 Cyanide (CN) 269\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.16 Fluoride (F) 269\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.17 Iodine (I) 269\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.18 Lead (Pb) 269\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.19 Manganese (Mn) 270\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.20 Mercury (Hg) 270\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.21 Nickel (Ni) 270\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.22 Nitrate and Nitrite 271\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.23 Selenium (Se) 271\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.24 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 271\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.25 Zinc (Zn) 271\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.26 Radioactive Material 272\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.27 Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) 272\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3.28 Pesticides, Herbicides and Fungicides 272\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.4 Future Plan for Improved Water Quality 273\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e6 Lithosphere\/Geosphere 275\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.1 Introduction to Lithosphere\/Geosphere 275\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2 Composition of Rocks 276\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3 Characteristics of Igneous Rocks 278\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3.1 Types of Igneous Rocks 279\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3.2 Igneous Rocks and Bowen Reaction Series 280\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.4 Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks 281\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5 Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks 282\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5.1 Heat and Metamorphism 282\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5.2 Pressure and Metamorphism 283\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5.3 Chemical Actions of Fluids 283\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5.4 Types of Metamorphism 283\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5.5 Common Metamorphic Rocks 284\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.6 Structure of Earth and Isostacy 284\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.7 Plate Tectonics 285\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.8 Earthquakes 286\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.8.1 Earthquake Waves 287\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.9 Volcanism 288\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.10 Weathering 289\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.10.1 Products of Weathering 289\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.10.2 Chemical Weathering 290\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.10.3 Physical Weathering 290\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.10.4 Biological Weathering 291\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.11 Landform of Weathering 292\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.11.1 Regiolith and Soil 292\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.11.2 Limestone Landforms 292\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.11.3 Periglacial Landforms 293\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.12 Introduction to Soil 293\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.12.1 Organic Activity 294\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.12.2 Translocation 294\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.12.3 Soil Texture 294\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.12.4 Soil pH 295\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.12.5 Soil Colour 295\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.12.6 Soil Profile 296\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.13 Interaction of Lithosphere with other Spheres 296\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7 Soil Pollution and Remediation Processes 299\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1 Introduction to Soil Pollution 299\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2 Causes of Land Pollution 302\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3 Soil Contaminants 303\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3.1 Organic Pollutants 303\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3.2 Inorganic Pollutants 303\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3.3 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) 303\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3.4 Petroleum Hydrocarbons 335\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3.5 Radionuclides 340\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4 Effects of Soil Pollution 341\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.1 Endangering Human Health 341\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.2 Economic Losses 341\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.3 Air and Water Contamination 341\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.4 Effect on Plant Life 342\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.5 Acidification 342\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.6 Diminished Soil Fertility 342\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.7 Changes in Soil Structure 342\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.4.8 Increase in Soil Salinity 343\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5 Ecotoxicology of Soil 343\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5.1 Role of Microorganisms in Soil 343\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5.2 Effects of POPs on Soil 344\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5.3 Effects of Pesticides on Soil 344\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.6 Reclamation of Contaminated Land 344\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.6.1 \u003ci\u003eEx situ \u003c\/i\u003eMethods 345\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.6.1.1 Destructive Methods 347\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.6.1.2 Thermal Methods 349\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.6.1.3 Biological Methods 357\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.6.1.4 Physiochemical Methods 366\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.6.2 \u003ci\u003eIn situ \u003c\/i\u003eMethods 376\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.6.2.1 Physical Methods 376\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.6.2.2 Chemical Methods 379\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.6.2.3 Biological Methods 382\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.6.2.4 Thermal Methods 384\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7 Solutions to Soil Pollution 391\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7.1 Reduced Use of Pesticides 391\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7.2 Organic Farming 392\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7.3 Reduced Yield Pressure 392\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7.4 Control Grazing and Forest Management 392\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7.5 Wind Breaks and Wind Shield 395\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7.6 Special Pits for Dumping Wastes 395\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7.7 Soil Binding Greases 395\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7.8 Afforestation and Reforestation 396\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7.9 Recycling of Materials 397\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7.10 Solid Waste Treatment 398\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e8 Biosphere 399\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.1 Introduction to Biosphere 399\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2 Extent of Earth’s Biosphere 399\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.3 Components of Biosphere 400\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4 Industrial Ecology 403\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.1 Industrial Ecosystem 404\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.2 Societal Factors and Environmental Ethics 404\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5 Natural Cycles 405\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5.1 Hydrologic Cycle 405\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5.2 Carbon Cycle 406\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5.3 Nitrogen Cycle 410\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5.4 Sulphur Cycle 413\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5.5 Phosphorous Cycle 415\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5.6 Oxygen Cycle 415\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5.7 Halogens and Organohalides 416\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5.8 Iron Cycle 416\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.5.9 Selenium Cycle 419\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.6 Disturbances in Biosphere 419\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.7 Remote Sensing of Biosphere at NASA 424\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9 Noise Pollution 427\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.1 What Is Noise Pollution? 427\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2 Noise Sources 427\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2.1 Typical Range of Noise Levels 427\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2.2 Characteristics of Industrial Noise 429\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2.2.1 Industrial Noise Sources 430\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2.2.2 Mining and Construction Noise 431\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2.3 Transportation Noise 432\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003exvi Contents\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2.4 Urban Noise 432\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2.5 Specific Noise Sources 434\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3 Effects of Noise 434\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.1 Reactions to Noise 434\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.1.1 Auditory Effects 435\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.1.2 Permanent Threshold Shift (PTS) 435\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.1.3 Acoustic Trauma 436\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.2 Damage-Risk Criteria 436\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.3 Psychological Effects of Noise Pollution 436\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.3.1 Speech Interference 436\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.3.2 Annoyance 437\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.3.3 Sleep Interference 437\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.3.4 Effects on Performance 437\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.3.5 Acoustic Privacy 438\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.3.6 Subjective Responses 438\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4 Noise Measurements 438\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4.1 Instruments for Measuring Noise 439\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4.2 Impacts and Impulse Magnitude 440\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4.3 Monitoring Devices 440\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4.4 Field Measurements 440\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10 Toxicological Chemistry 443\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.1 Introduction to Toxicological Chemistry 443\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2 Synergism, Potentiation and Antagonism 444\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.3 Dose Response Relationship 444\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.4 Relative Toxicities 444\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.5 Reversibility and Sensitivity 445\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.5.1 Hypersensitivity and Hyposensitivity 445\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.6 Xenobiotic and Endogenous Substances 445\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7 Toxicological Chemistry 446\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7.1 Toxicants in Body 446\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8 Kinetic Phase and Dynamic Phase 446\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8.1 Primary Reaction in Dynamic Phase 447\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8.2 Biochemical Effects in Dynamic Phase 447\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8.3 Response to Toxicants 447\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8.4 Tetragenesis 448\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8.5 Mutagenesis 448\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8.6 Carcinogenesis 448\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8.6.1 Biochemistry of Carcinogenesis 448\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8.6.2 Alkylating Agents in Carcinogenesis 449\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8.7 Testing for Carcinogens 449\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8.8 Immune System Response 449\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8.9 Estrogenic Substances 450\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.9 ATSDR Toxicological Profiles 450\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10 Biotransformation of Xenobiotics 450\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.1 Basic Properties of Xenobiotic Bio-Transforming Enzymes 450\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.2 Biotransformation versus Metabolism 451\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.3 Stereochemical Aspects of Xenobiotic Biotransformation 451\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.4 Phase I and Phase II Biotransformation 452\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.5 Nomenclature of Xenobiotic Bio-Transforming Enzymes 452\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.6 Distribution of Xenobiotic Bio-Transforming Enzymes 452\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.7 Xenobiotic Biotransformation by Phase I Enzymes 452\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.7.1 Hydrolysis 453\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.7.2 Reduction 453\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.7.3 Oxidation 453\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.7.4 Activation of Xenobiotics by Cytochrome P450 454\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.7.5 P450 Knockout Mice 454\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.7.6 Inhibition of Cytochrome P450 454\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.7.7 Induction of Cytochrome P450 455\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.8 Phase II Enzyme Reactions 455\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.8.1 Glucuronidation 455\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.8.2 Sulfation 456\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.8.3 Methylation 456\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.8.4 Acetylation 456\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.8.5 Amino Acid Conjugation 457\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.8.6 Glutathione Conjugation 457\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.8.7 Rhodanese 457\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10.8.8 Phosphorylation 458\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.11 Toxic Inorganic Compounds 458\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.11.1 Cyanide 458\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.11.2 Carbon Mono Oxide 459\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.11.3 Nitrogen Oxides 459\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.11.4 Hydrogen Halides 459\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.11.5 Asbestos 460\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.11.6 Inorganic Compounds of Silicon 460\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.11.7 Inorganic Phosphorous Compounds 461\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.11.8 Inorganic Compounds of Sulphur 461\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.11.9 Organo Metallic Compounds 462\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.11.9.1 Organo Lead Compounds 462\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.11.9.2 Organo Tin Compounds 462\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.12 Toxicology of Organic Compounds 463\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.12.1 Alkane Hydrocarbon 463\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.12.2 Alkene and Alkyne Hydrocarbons 463\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.12.3 Benzene and Aromatic Hydrocarbon 464\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.12.4 Oxygen Containing Organic Compounds 464\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.12.5 Organo Nitrogen Compounds 465\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.12.6 Organo Halide Compounds 466\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.12.7 Organo Halide Pesticide 466\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.12.8 Organo Sulphur Compounds 467\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.12.9 Organo Phosphorous Compounds 467\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e11 Environmental Disasters 469\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.1 Introduction to Environmental Disasters 469\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2 Types of Environmental Disasters 469\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2.1 Agricultural Disasters 469\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2.2 Biodiversity Disasters 470\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2.3 Industrial Disasters 470\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2.4 Human Health Disasters 470\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2.5 Natural Disasters 470\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2.6 Nuclear Disasters 470\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2.7 Geo-Hydrological Disasters 471\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2.8 Climate Change and Disasters 472\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3 Historical Environmental Disasters 472\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.1 “Fat Man” and “Little Boy” Attack on Japan (1945) 472\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.2 Plant Emissions in Donora, Penn., U.S. (1948) 473\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.3 Four-Day Fog in London, England (1952) 473\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.4 Love Canal, Niagara Falls, New York (1953) 474\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.5 New York Smog (1966) 474\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.6 Smiling Buddha Indian Nuclear Test (1974) 475\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.7 Release of Methyl Isocynate in Bhopal, India (1984) 475\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.8 Radionuclide Releases, Chernobyl, Ukraine (1986) 476\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.9 Air Pollution Asia (2016) 477\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.10 Fuel Tanker Explosion, Bahawalpur, Pakistan (2017) 477\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.11 Beirut Explosion, Lebanon (2020) 478\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12 Hazardous Wastes 479\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.1 Introduction to Hazardous Wastes 479\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.2 Classification of Hazardous Wastes 479\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3 Characteristics of Hazardous Wastes 480\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4 Types of Wastes 495\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4.1 Radionuclides\/Nuclear Waste 526\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4.2 Chemical Waste 527\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4.3 Biological Waste 527\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.5 Hazardous Waste Management 528\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.5.1 Radionuclide\/Nuclear Waste Management 528\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.5.2 Chemical Waste Management 529\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.5.3 Biological Waste Management 529\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e13 Non-Renewable Energy Resources 531\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.1 What Is Energy? 531\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.2 Types of Energy 532\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3 Natural Gas 533\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3.1 Global Statistics 533\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3.2 Historical Perspective 534\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3.3 Chemical Composition 535\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3.4 Process of Formation of Natural Gas 535\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3.5 Generation and Transmission of Electricity 536\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3.6 What Is LNG? 537\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3.7 Advantages and Disadvantages 537\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4 Coal 538\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4.1 Global Trends in Coal 538\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4.2 Historical Milestones 538\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4.3 Types of Coal 539\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4.4 Process of Coal Formation 540\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4.5 Electricity Production from Coal Power Plant 540\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4.6 Coal in Steel Production 540\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4.7 Coal Liquification 541\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4.8 Coal and Cement 542\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.4.9 Advantages and Disadvantages 542\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5 Petroleum 543\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5.1 Global Petroleum Reserves 543\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5.2 Historical Perspective 544\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5.3 Chemistry of Petroleum 544\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5.4 Classification of Crude Oil 545\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5.5 Process of Formation 545\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5.6 Worldwide Applications of Petroleum 546\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.5.7 Advantages and Disadvantages 546\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6 Nuclear Energy 547\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6.1 Nuclear Fusion 547\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6.2 Nuclear Fission 549\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6.3 Nuclear Reactor 550\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6.4 Generation of Electricity from Nuclear Energy 550\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6.5 Global Statistical Perspective 552\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6.6 Future Demands of Nuclear Energy 552\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6.7 Advantages and Disadvantages 553\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e14 Renewable Energy Resources 555\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.1 Introduction to Renewable Energy Resources 555\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2 Wind Energy 556\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2.1 History of Wind Energy 557\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2.2 World Wind Energy Statistics 558\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2.3 Types of Wind Turbines 558\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2.3.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine 559\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2.3.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine 560\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2.3.3 Ducted Wind Turbines 560\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2.4 Method of Electricity Generation from Wind Energy 561\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2.5 Importance of Area Selection for Wind Energy 562\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2.6 Advantages and Disadvantages 562\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3 Solar Energy 563\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3.1 Historical Perspective 563\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3.2 Global Statistics 564\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3.3 Types of Solar Cells 565\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3.3.1 Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell 565\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3.3.2 Crystalline Silicon Solar Cell 565\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3.3.3 Monocrystalline Solar Cell 566\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3.3.4 Polycrystalline Solar Cell 566\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3.3.5 Thin Film Solar Cell 567\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3.4 Working Principle of Solar Energy System 567\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages 569\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.4 Water-Derived Energy 569\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.4.1 Tidal Power 569\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.4.2 Wave Power 570\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.4.3 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion 570\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.4.4 Method of Generation of Electricity 571\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.4.5 Advantages and Disadvantages 572\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.5 Geothermal Energy 572\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.5.1 Brief History 573\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.5.2 Statistical Interpretation 573\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.5.3 Principles of Electricity Generation 574\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.5.4 Geysers 575\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.5.5 Flash Steam Geothermal Power Plant 576\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.5.6 Binary Cycle Geothermal Power Plant 576\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.5.7 Advantages and Disadvantages 577\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.6 Fuel Cells 577\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.6.1 History of Fuel Cells 577\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.6.2 Types of Fuel Cells 578\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.6.2.1 Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC) 578\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.6.2.2 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC) 578\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.6.2.3 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC) 579\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.6.2.4 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) 579\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.6.2.5 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) 580\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.6.3 Working Principle of Fuel Cell 580\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.6.4 Advantages and Disadvantages 581\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e15 Biofuels 583\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.1 Introduction to Biofuels 583\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.2 Properties of Biofuels 584\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.2.1 Molecular Structure 584\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.2.2 Physical Properties 584\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.2.3 Chemical Properties 585\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.3 Potential of Biomass 586\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.4 Biofuel Standardization 587\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.5 Types of Biofuels 587\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.5.1 First-Generation Biofuels 588\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.5.2 Second-Generation Biofuels 588\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.5.3 Third-Generation Biofuels 589\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6 Bioethanol 589\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.1 Food Stock Production 589\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.1.1 Sugar Crops 590\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.1.2 Starch Crops 592\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.1.3 Cellulosic Feedstock 593\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.2 Bioethanol Production 593\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.2.1 Sugar to Ethanol Process 594\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.2.2 Starch to Ethanol Process 594\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.2.3 Cellulose to Ethanol Process 595\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.2.4 Distillation and Dehydration Process 596\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.3 Properties of Bioethanol 596\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.4 Technology Applications of Bioethanol 597\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.4.1 Spark Ignition Engines 597\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.4.2 Fuel Cells 597\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.5 Standardization of Bioethanol 598\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.6 Energy Balance of Bioethanol 598\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.7 Bioethanol Emissions 599\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.7.1 Green House Emissions 599\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.7.2 Toxic Exhaust Emissions 600\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.8 Other Environmental Aspects of Bioethanol 600\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.8.1 Water Issues 600\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.8.2 Land Use and Biodiversity 601\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.8.3 Human Health 602\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6.9 Economy of Bioethanol 602\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7 Lipid-Derived Biofuels 603\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.1 Feedstock Production 603\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.1.1 Oil Seed Crops 604\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.1.2 Microalgae 606\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.1.3 Animal Fats 607\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.1.4 Waste Oils 608\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.2 Fuel Production 608\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.2.1 Oil Extraction 609\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.2.2 Oil Refining 610\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.2.3 Trans Esterification 611\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.3 Properties and Use of Lipid Biofuels 612\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.3.1 Properties of Pure Plant Oil 612\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.3.2 Properties of Biodiesel 613\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.4 Technology Applications of Lipid Biofuels 614\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.4.1 Compression Ignition Engine for Biodiesel Use 614\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.4.2 Compression Ignition Engine for PPO Use 615\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.5 Standardization of Lipid Biofuels 615\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.5.1 Standardization of PPO 615\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.5.2 Standardization of Biodiesel 615\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.7 Emission of Lipid Biofuels 617\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.7.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 617\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.7.2 Toxic Exhaust Emissions 618\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.8 Other Environmental Impacts of Lipid Biofuels 618\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.8.1 Water Issues 619\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.8.2 Land Use and Biodiversity 619\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.8.3 Human Health 620\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003exxii Contents\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7.9 Economy of Lipid Biofuels 620\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.8 BtL Fuels 621\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.8.1 Feedstock Production 621\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.8.2 BtL Production 622\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.8.2.1 Gasification 622\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.8.2.2 Gas Cleaning 623\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.8.2.3 Synthesis Process 623\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.8.3 Properties and Emissions of BtL Fuels 624\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9 Biomethane 624\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9.1 Feedstock Production 624\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9.2 Biomethane Production 625\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9.2.1 Digestion Process 625\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9.2.2 Digestion Types 626\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9.2.3 Biogas Purification 627\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9.3 Properties and Use of Biomethane 627\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9.4 Technology Applications of Biomethane 627\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9.4.1 Infrastructure Requirements for Biomethane 627\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9.4.2 Vehicle Technologies for Biomethane 628\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9.5 Standardization of Biomethane 628\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9.6 Biomethane Emissions 629\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9.6.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 629\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9.6.2 Toxic Exhaust Emissions 629\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9.7 Other Environmental Effects of Biomethane 629\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9.8 Economy of Biomethane 630\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.10 Biohydrogen 630\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.10.1 Biohydrogen Processing 630\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.10.2 Use of Biohydrogen 632\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.11 Biomass Conversion Inhibitors and \u003ci\u003ein situ \u003c\/i\u003eDetoxification 632\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.11.1 Introduction to Inhibitors 632\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.11.2 Inhibitory Compounds Derived from Biomass Pretreatment 633\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.11.3 Inhibitory Effects 635\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.11.4 Removal of Inhibitors 636\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.11.5 Inhibitor Tolerant Strain Development 637\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.11.6 Inhibitor Conversion Pathways 638\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.11.7 Molecular Mechanism of \u003ci\u003ein situ \u003c\/i\u003eDetoxification 639\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.12 Policies in Biofuel 642\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.13 Strategies for New Vehicle Technologies 643\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.14 Market Barriers of Biofuels 644\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbout the Authors 647\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndex 649\u003c\/p\u003e","brand":"John Wiley \u0026 Sons Inc","offers":[{"title":"Default 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