{"product_id":"biochemistry-an-integrative-approach-9781119402565","title":"Biochemistry An Integrative Approach","description":"\u003cb\u003eBook Synopsis\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cb\u003eTable of Contents\u003c\/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1 \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe Chemical Foundations of Biochemistry 1\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eChemistry in Context 1\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1 General Chemical Principles 2\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1.1 The basic principles of thermodynamics describe all systems 2\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1.2 Equilibrium describes a specific thermodynamic state 7\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1.3 Kinetics describes the rate of chemical reactions 8\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1.4 Thermodynamics, equilibrium, and kinetics are used together to describe biochemical reactions and systems 9\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2 Fundamental Concepts of Organic Chemistry 11\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2.1 Chemical properties and reactions can be sorted by functional groups 11\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2.2 The solubility and polarity of a molecule can be determined from its structure 12\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2.3 Reaction mechanisms attempt to explain how a reaction occurs 13\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2.4 Many biochemical molecules are polymers 14\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3 The Chemistry of Water 15\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3.1 The structure of water provides clues about its properties 16\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3.2 Hydrogen bonding among water molecules is one of the most important weak forces in biochemistry 17\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3.3 Water can ionize to acids and bases in biochemical systems 18\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2 \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003eNucleic Acids 26\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNucleic Acids in Context 26\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1 Nucleic Acids Have Distinct Structures 27\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1.1 Nucleic acids can be understood at the chemical level 28\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1.2 The complex shapes of nucleic acids are the result of numerous weak forces 30\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2 Nucleic Acids Have Many Cellular Functions 37\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.1 Replication is the process by which cells copy DNA 37\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.2 Transcription is the copying of DNA into an RNA message 40\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.3 Translation is the synthesis of proteins by ribosomes using an mRNA code 41\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.4 Regulation of replication, transcription, and translation is critical to an organism’s survival and propagation 42\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2.5 Viruses and retroviruses use the cell’s own machinery to reproduce 43\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3 The Manipulation of Nucleic Acids Has Transformed Biochemistry 45\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3.1 DNA can be easily manipulated and analyzed \u003ci\u003ein vitro \u003c\/i\u003e45\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3.2 DNA can be used to drive protein expression 53\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3.3 Techniques can be used to silence genes in organisms 59\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3 \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003eProteins I: An Introduction to Protein Structure and Function 67\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eProteins in Context 67\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1 Amino Acid Chemistry 69\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.1 The structure of amino acids dictates their chemical properties 69\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.2 The side chains of amino acids impart unique properties 70\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1.3 Amino acids have various roles in biochemistry 72\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2 Proteins Are Polymers of Amino Acids 74\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.1 Both peptides and proteins are polymers of amino acids 74\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.2 The peptide bond has special characteristics 76\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.3 Many proteins require inorganic ions or small organic molecules to function 76\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2.4 Amino acids can be modified within proteins 77\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3 Proteins Are Molecules of Defined Shape and Structure 79\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3.1 The primary structure of a protein is its amino acid sequence 79\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3.2 The secondary structure of a protein is comprised of a few conserved structures 81\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3.3 The tertiary structure of a protein is the organization of secondary structures into conserved motifs 84\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3.4 The quaternary structure of a protein describes how individual subunits interact 88\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4 Examples of Protein Structures and Functions 89\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4.1 Aquaporin, a transmembrane pore 90\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4.2 Chymotrypsin, an enzyme 90\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4.3 Collagen, a structural protein 91\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4.4 Hemoglobin, a transport protein 92\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4.5 Immunoglobulins, binding proteins 92\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4.6 Insulin, a signaling protein 93\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4.7 Myosin, a molecular motor 94\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4 \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003eProteins II: Enzymes 101\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEnzymes in Context 101\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1 Regarding Enzymes 103\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1.1 Enzymes are protein catalysts 103\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1.2 Enzymatically catalyzed reactions can be categorized 105\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1.3 How do enzymes work? 106\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2 Enzymes Increase Reaction Rate 108\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2.1 A review of chemical rates 108\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2.2 The Michaelis-Menten equation relates enzymatic rates to measurable parameters 109\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2.3 The Michaelis constant has several meanings 111\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2.4 Kinetic data can be graphically analyzed 112\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2.5 \u003ci\u003ek\u003c\/i\u003ecat\/\u003ci\u003eK\u003c\/i\u003eM is a measure of catalytic efficiency 112\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2.6 Some enzymes approach catalytic perfection 112\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2.7 Enzymatic reactions may be inhibited through one of several different mechanisms 113\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2.8 Many reactions have more than one substrate 116\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3 The Mechanism of an Enzyme Can Be Deduced from Structural, Kinetic, and Spectral Data 117\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3.1 Enzymatically catalyzed reactions have common properties 118\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3.2 Examining examples of enzymatic reaction mechanisms illustrates underpinning principles 119\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3.3 Mechanisms are elucidated using a combination of experimental techniques 125\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4 Examples of Enzyme Regulation 127\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4.1 Covalent modifications are a common means of enzyme regulation 127\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4.2 Allosteric regulators bind at sites other than the active site 129\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5 \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003eMembranes and an Introduction to Signal Transduction 138\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBiochemistry in Context 138\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1 Membrane Structure and Function 139\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.1 The chemical properties of the membrane components dictate the characteristics of the membrane 140\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.2 Other aspects of membrane structure 145\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.1.3 Membrane fusion and membrane budding 146\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2 Signal Transduction 149\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.1 General principles underlie signal transduction 149\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.2 The protein kinase A (PKA) signaling pathway is activated by cyclic AMP 150\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.3 Insulin is an important metabolic regulator and growth factor 153\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2.4 The AMP kinase (AMPK) signaling pathway coordinates metabolic pathways in the cell and in the body 154\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e6 \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003eCarbohydrates I: Mono- and Disaccharides, Glycolysis, Gluconeogenesis, and the Fates of Pyruvate 161\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCarbohydrates in Context 161\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.1 Properties, Nomenclature, and Biological Functions of Monosaccharides 163\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.1.1 Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates 163\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.1.2 Monosaccharides form hemiacetals and hemiketals 165\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.1.3 Monosaccharides form heterocyclic structures 165\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.1.4 Monosaccharides can be chemically modified 167\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.1.5 Carbohydrates can be classified as reducing sugars or nonreducing sugars 168\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2 Properties, Nomenclature, and Biological Functions of Complex Carbohydrates 170\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2.1 Common disaccharides include lactose, sucrose, and maltose 170\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2.2 Trisaccharides and oligosaccharides contain three or more monosaccharide units bound by glycosidic linkages 173\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2.3 Common polysaccharides function to store energy or provide structure 174\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3 Glycolysis and an Introduction to Metabolic Pathways 177\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3.1 Metabolic pathways describe how molecules are built up or broken down 178\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.3.2 Glycolysis is the process by which glucose is broken into pyruvate 180\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.4 Gluconeogenesis 193\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.4.1 Gluconeogenesis differs from glycolysis at four reactions 193\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.4.2 The regulation of gluconeogenesis takes place at several different levels 195\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5 The Fates of Pyruvate 196\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5.1 Pyruvate can be decarboxylated to acetyl-CoA by pyruvate dehydrogenase 197\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5.2 Pyruvate can be converted to lactate by lactate dehydrogenase 200\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5.3 Pyruvate can be transaminated to alanine 201\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5.4 Pyruvate can be carboxylated to oxaloacetate by pyruvate carboxylase 201\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5.5 Microbes can decarboxylate pyruvate into acetaldehyde 201\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7 \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe Common Catabolic Pathway: Citric Acid Cycle, the Electron Transport Chain, and ATP Biosynthesis 209\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eElectron Transport in Context 209\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1 The Citric Acid Cycle 211\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1.1 There are eight reactions in the citric acid cycle 212\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1.2 The citric acid cycle is regulated at multiple places and by several different mechanisms 218\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1.3 Anaplerotic reactions of the citric acid cycle replenish intermediates 219\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2 The Electron Transport Chain 223\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.1 Electron transport occurs through a series of redox active centers from higher to lower potential energy 224\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.2 Complex I (NADH dehydrogenase) transfers electrons from NADH to ubiquinone via a series of iron-sulfur centers 229\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.3 Complex II is the citric acid cycle enzyme succinate dehydrogenase 231\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.4 Complex III is ubiquinone\/cytochrome \u003ci\u003ec \u003c\/i\u003ereductase 233\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.5 Cytochrome \u003ci\u003ec \u003c\/i\u003eis a soluble electron carrier 235\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.6 In complex IV, oxygen is the terminal electron carrier 235\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2.7 The entire complex working as one: the respirasome 238\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3 ATP Biosynthesis 241\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3.1 The structure of ATP synthase underlies its function 241\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3.2 ATP synthase acts as a molecular machine driving the assembly of ATP molecules 243\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3.3 Other ATPases serve as ion pumps 245\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3.4 Inhibitors of the ATPases can be powerful drugs or poisons 246\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e8 \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003eCarbohydrates II: Glycogen Metabolism, the Pentose Phosphate Pathway, Glycoconjugates, and Extracellular Matrices 253\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePolysaccharides in Context 253\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.1 Glycogen Metabolism 255\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.1.1 Glycogenesis is glycogen biosynthesis 256\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.1.2 Glycogenolysis is glycogen breakdown 257\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.1.3 The regulation of glycogenesis and glycogenolysis 259\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2 The Pentose Phosphate Pathway 264\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2.1 The oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway produces NADPH and ribulose-5- phosphate 264\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2.2 The nonoxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway results in rearrangement of monosaccharides 266\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2.3 Regulation of the pentose phosphate pathway 267\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2.4 The pentose phosphate pathway in health and disease 268\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.2.5 Xylulose-5-phosphate is a master regulator of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism 271\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.3 Carbohydrates in Glycoconjugates 273\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.3.1 Glycoproteins 273\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.3.2 Glycolipids 276\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.3.3 Proteoglycans and non-proteoglycan polysaccharides 279\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.3.4 Peptidoglycans 282\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4 Extracellular Matrices and Biofilms 284\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.1 Eukaryotic extracellular matrix proteins 284\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4.2 Biofilms are composed of microbes living in a secreted matrix 290\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9 \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003eLipids I: Fatty Acids, Steroids, and Eicosanoids; Beta-Oxidation and Fatty Acid Biosynthesis 300\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLipids in Context 300\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.1 Properties, Nomenclature, and Biological Functions of Lipid Molecules 302\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.1.1 Fatty acids are a common building block of many lipids 302\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.1.2 Neutral lipids are storage forms of fatty acids or cholesterol 305\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.1.3 Phospholipids are important in membrane formation 306\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.1.4 All steroids and bile salts are derived from cholesterol 309\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.1.5 Eicosanoids are potent signaling molecules derived from 20-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids 310\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2 Fatty Acid Catabolism 311\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2.1 Fatty acids must be transported into the mitochondrial matrix before catabolism can proceed 312\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2.2 Fatty acids are oxidized to acetyl-CoA by β-oxidation 312\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2.3 Beta-oxidation is regulated at two different levels 316\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3 Fatty Acid Biosynthesis 317\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.1 Two major enzyme complexes are involved in fatty acid biosynthesis 318\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.2 Elongases and desaturases in the endoplasmic reticulum increase fatty acid diversity 326\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3.3 The formation of malonyl-CoA by acetyl-CoA carboxylase is the regulated and rate-determining step of fatty acid biosynthesis 327\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4 Ketone Body Metabolism 329\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4.1 Ketone bodies are made from acetyl-CoA 330\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.4.2 Ketone bodies can be thought of as a water-soluble fuel source used in the absence of carbohydrates 330\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.5 Steroid Metabolism 332\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.5.1 Cholesterol is synthesized in the liver through the addition of energetically activated isoprene units 332\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.5.2 Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol 336\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.5.3 Bile salts are steroid detergents used in the digestion of fats 337\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.6 Eicosanoid and Endocannabinoid Metabolism 339\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.6.1 Eicosanoids are classified by the enzymes involved in their synthesis 339\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.6.2 Endocannabinoids such as anandamide are also arachidonate derivatives 341\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10 \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003eLipids II: Metabolism and Transport of Complex Lipids 351\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eComplex Lipids in Context 351\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.1 Phospholipid Metabolism 353\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.1.1 Glycerophospholipids are derived from phosphatidate or diacylglycerol using activated carriers 354\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.1.2 Sphingolipids are synthesized from ceramide 355\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.1.3 Phospholipases and sphingolipases cleave at specific sites 358\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2 Digestion of Triacylglycerols 361\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2.1 Triacylglycerol digestion begins in the gastrointestinal tract 361\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2.2 Dietary lipids are absorbed in the small intestine and pass into lymph before entering the circulation 363\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2.3 Several molecules affect neutral lipid digestion 365\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.3 Transport of Lipids in the Circulation 367\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.3.1 Lipoproteins have a defined structure and composition, and transport lipids in the circulation 367\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.3.2 The trafficking of lipoproteins in the blood can be separated conceptually into three different paths 369\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.3.3 Brain lipids are transported on apo E-coated discs 372\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.3.4 Fatty acids and hydrophobic hormones are transported by binding to carrier proteins 374\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.4 Entry of Lipids into the Cell 377\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.4.1 Fatty acids can enter the cell via diffusion or by protein-mediated transport 377\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.4.2 Lipoprotein particles and many other complexes enter the cell via receptor-mediated endocytosis 377\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.5 Neutral Lipid Biosynthesis 380\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.5.1 Triacylglycerols are synthesized by different pathways depending on the tissue 380\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.5.2 Triacylglycerol metabolism and phosphatidate metabolism are enzymatically linked 382\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.6 Lipid Storage Droplets, Fat Storage, and Mobilization 384\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.6.1 Bulk neutral lipids in the cell are stored in a specific organelle, the lipid storage droplet 384\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.6.2 Specific phosphorylation of lipases and lipid droplet proteins regulate lipolysis (triacylglycerol breakdown) 384\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.6.3 Triacylglycerol metabolism is regulated at several levels 387\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7 Lipid Rafts as a Biochemical Entity 388\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7.1 Lipid rafts are loosely associated groups of sphingolipids and cholesterol found in the plasma membrane 388\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.7.2 Lipid rafts have been broadly grouped into two categories: caveolae and non-caveolar rafts 388\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e11 \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003eAmino Acid and Amine Metabolism 397\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAmine Metabolism in Context 397\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.1 Digestion of Proteins 399\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.1.1 Protein digestion begins in the stomach 399\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.1.2 Protein digestion continues in the small intestine, aided by proteases 401\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.1.3 Amino acids are absorbed in the small intestine 401\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.1.4 Amino acids serve many biological roles in the organism 403\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2 Transamination and Oxidative Deamination 404\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2.1 Ammonia can be removed from an amino acid in two different ways 405\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2.2 The glucose–alanine shuttle moves nitrogen to the liver and delivers glucose to tissues that need it 405\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2.3 Glutamine is also important in nitrogen transport 406\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3 The Urea Cycle 409\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.1 Ammonia detoxification begins with the synthesis of carbamoyl phosphate 409\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.2 The urea cycle synthesizes urea and other metabolic intermediates 409\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.3 Nitrogen metabolism is regulated at different levels 412\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.4 Mechanisms for elimination of nitrogenous wastes differ between mammals and non-mammals 412\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3.5 Some mammals have adapted to high- or low-protein diets 413\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4 Pathways of Amino Acid Carbon Skeleton Scavenging 414\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4.1 Three-carbon skeletons produce pyruvate 416\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4.2 Four-carbon skeletons produce oxaloacetate 417\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4.3 Five-carbon skeletons produce α-ketoglutarate 418\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4.4 Methionine, valine, and isoleucine produce succinyl-CoA 418\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4.5 Other amino acids produce acetyl-CoA, acetoacetate, or fumarate 418\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.5 The Detoxification of Other Amines and Xenobiotics 423\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.5.1 Phase I metabolism makes molecules more hydrophilic through oxidative modification 424\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.5.2 Phase II metabolism couples molecules to bulky hydrophilic groups 427\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.6 The Biochemistry of Renal Function 429\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.6.1 Molecules smaller than proteins are filtered out of the blood by the glomerulus 430\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.6.2 Water, glucose, and electrolytes are reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, and distal convoluted tubule 431\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12 \u003c\/b\u003e\u003cb\u003eRegulation and Integration of Metabolism 440\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMetabolism in Context 440\u003c\/b\u003e\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.1 A Review of the Pathways and Crossroads of Metabolism 442\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.1.1 The pathways of metabolism are interconnected 442\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.1.2 Several metabolites are at the intersection of multiple pathways 443\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.2 Organ Specialization and Metabolic States 446\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.2.1 Different organs play distinct roles in metabolism 447\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.2.2 The organism shifts between different metabolic states depending on access to food 450\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3 Communication between Organs 455\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3.1 Organs communicate using hormones 455\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3.2 Hormonal signals to the brain regulate appetite and metabolism 458\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3.3 Transcription factors and histone acetylases and deacetylases regulate metabolism in the longer term 460\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4 Metabolic Disease 463\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4.1 Diseases of excess: obesity, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome 463\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4.2 Diseases of absence: starvation, cachexia, and cancer 467\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4.3 Diseases of indulgence: alcohol overconsumption 468\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.4.4 Other metabolic states 469\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechniques 477\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003esolutions 493\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlossary 509\u003c\/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndex I-1\u003c\/p\u003e","brand":"John Wiley \u0026 Sons 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